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General Staff

General Staff

A General Staff is a group of professional military officers who act in a staff or administrative role under the command of a general officer.

History

Prior to the late 1700s, there was generally no organizational support for staff functions such as military intelligence, logistics, planning or personnel. Unit commanders handled such functions for their units, with informal help from subordinates who were not specifically assigned or trained.

Berthier and Napoleon

The first modern use of a General Staff was in the French Revolutionary Wars, when General Louis Berthier was assigned as Chief of Staff to the French Army of Italy in 1795. Berthier was able to establish a well organized staff support team. Napoleon Bonaparte took over the army the following year and rapidly came to appreciate Berthier's system, adopting it for his own headquarters, although Napoleon's usage was limited to his own command group.

Prussian System

Prussia also adopted a similar system in the following years. Initially, the Prussian army assigned a limited number of technical expert officers to support field commanders. Before 1805, however, reforms had added management of intelligence and contengency planning to the staff's duties. Later, the practice was initiated of rotating officers from command to staff assignments and back to familiarize them with both aspects of military operations. After 1806, Prussia's military academies trained mid-level officers in specialist staff skills. In 1814, Prussia formally established by law a central military command General Staff and a separate General Staff for each division and corps. Despite some professional and political issues with the Prussian system, their General Staff concept has been adopted by virtually all large armies in existence today.

Modern US Army usage

The following are designations used in the United States Armed Forces:
- The G-1 is the chief of staff for personnel.
- The G-2 is the intelligence staff officer.
- The G-3 is the chief of staff for plans, operations, and training; sometimes called the Operations Officer.
- The G-4 is the logistics officer.
- The G-5 is the civil affairs or public affairs officer.
- The G-6 is the command, control, communications, and computer systems staff officer, and is frequently the Chief Information Officer (CIO) of the component.
- The G-7 is the joint operations staff officer. Very few organizations have a G-7 office; most of the offices are J-7, at the Department of Defense level.
- The G-8 is the resource management officer. At lower command levels (air group, squadron, regiment, battalion), the "G" designations are replaced by "S" designations.

External link

- [http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/mil/html/mh_019900_generalstaff.htm Houghton Mifton's College Readers Companion to Military History entry for General Staff]

Military

A military or military force (n., from Latin militarius, miles "soldier") has seen many different incarnations throughout time. Early armies may have been just men with sharpened sticks and rocks, through time they have included advancements such as men mounted on horses, men wielding swords and other metallic weapons, the bow and arrow, siege weapons, to the advance of the musket which form the roots of the armed force of most nations we know today. In modern times people use vehicles and guns. While military can refer to any armed force, it generally refers to a permanent, professional force of soldiers or guerrillas—trained exclusively for the purpose of warfare and should be distinguished from a sanctioned militia or a levy, which are temporary forces— citizen soldiers with less training, who may be 'called up' as a reserve force, when a nation mobilizes for total war, or to defend against invasion. The term military is often used to mean an army. The doctrine that asserts the primacy of a military within a society is called militarism.

Meaning of the word

:Also see: Armed forces As an adjective, "military" is a descriptive property of things related to soldiers and warfare. It also refers to such context dependent terms such as military reserves which may indicate an actual unit deployable on command or the general sense, of a Nation States reserve troops available to or eligible for duty in its armed forces. In formal British English, "military" as an adjective [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2003/20030636.htm refers] more particularly to matters relating to an army (land forces), as opposed to the naval and air force matters of the other two services. In American English, "military" as an adjective is more widely used for regulations pertaining to and between all the armed forces like military procurement, military transport, military justice, military strength and military force.

Military procurement

Military procurement refers to common regulations and requirements for a ship or a detached unit to requisistion and draw on a base's facilies (housing, pay, and rations for detached personnel), supplies (most commonly food stocks or materials, and vehicles) by the service running a primary base; e.g. Army units detached to or staging through an air base, a vessel calling at a port near an army or air base, an army unit drawing supplies from a naval base.

Military transport

Military transport would pertain to an equipment trans-shipped via a sister service, or an individual detached for a technical school operated by a sister service, or the travel orders and authorization of such an individual to procede via a sister services vehicles, as well as the drawing (loan of) transportation assets (staff cars, Hum-Vees, military trucks) operating from the primary base command.

Military Justice

Military Justice, as in the Uniform Code of Military Justice. Most nations have a separate code of law which regulates both certain activities allowed only in war, as well as provides a code of law applicable only to a soldier in war (or 'in uniform' during in peacetime). The statutory laws set down by the United States Congress to apply to the individual conduct within any military force of the United States— these are the specific articles under which a soldier or sailor would be tried for infractions ranging from minor (Late Return, petty theft; ) to severe (Rape, Murder); this code is usually referred to by the acronym UCMJ.

Military strength

Military strength is a term that describes a quantification or reference to a nation's standing military forces or the capacity for fulfillment of that military's role. For example, the military strength of a given country could be interpreted as the number of individuals in its armed forces, the destructive potential of its arsenal, or both. For example, while China and India maintain the largest armed forces in the world, the US Military is considered to be the world's strongest.

Military Force

Military Force is a term that might refer to a particular unit, a regiment or gunboat deployed in a particular locale, or as an aggregate of such forces (e.g. "In the Gulf War the United States Central Command controled military forces (units) of each of the five military services of the United States.").

Military history

:Main article: Military history Military history is often considered to be the history of all conflicts, not just the history of proper militaries. It differs somewhat from the history of war with military history focusing on the people and institutions of war-making while the history of war focuses on the evolution of war itself in the face of changing technology, governments, and geography. Military history has a number of purposes. One main purpose is to learn from past accomplishments and mistakes so as to more effectively wage war in the future. Another is to create a sense of tradition which is used to create cohesive military forces. Still another may be to learn to prevent wars more effectively.

Military reserve

:Main article: Military reserve Military reserve refers to specific trained pre-organized forces operating as an on call basis from the main military force. In the United States, the Reserves forces such as the qunit mission profile (e.g. Many 'Military Police' trained regular reserve units and ' National Guard units' were mobilized during the Iraq war, as were units specializing in supply, transport, engineering, et al.) These various volunteer manned units are always 'on call' and refered to as the ready reserves but might be augmented by the Inactive Reserves in time of dire emergency or total war under the United States model— the inactive reserve is composed of all former serving members of any of the US Armed Forces of military age. Individuls in this class are former members of the regular and ready reserve forces, that have opted to discontinue service in any of those organized bodys; in general, the inactive reserves are not an organized force, but a resource of trained manpower that can be mobilized similar to calling up a levy but in theory with the training of a militia. Individuals in the inactive reserves with specialized talents are from time to time also recalled into service, albeit rarely, one exception being the ongoing current need for Military Police and Quartermasters in Iraq.

Military science

:Main article: Military science Military science concerns itself with the study and of the diverse technical, psychological, and practical phenomena that encompass the events that make up warfare, especially armed combat. It strives to be an all-encompassing scientific system that if properly employed, will greatly enhance the practitioner's ability to prevail in an armed conflict with any adversary. To this end, it is unconcerned whether that adversary is an opposing military force, guerrillas or other irregulars, or even knows of or utilizes military science in return.

Specific militaries

- British Armed Forces
- Royal Navy
- British Army
- Royal Air Force
- Royal Marines
- Special Air Service
- Special Boat Service
- Canadian Armed Forces
- Canadian Army
- Royal Canadian Air Force
- Royal Canadian Navy
- Military of India
- Indian Army
- Indian Air Force
- Indian Navy
- Indian Coast Guard
- Indian Paramilitary Forces
- Military of New Zealand
- Royal New Zealand Navy
- New Zealand Army
- Royal New Zealand Air Force
- Special Air Service of New Zealand
- Military of the United States
- Army
- Air Force
- Marine Corps
- Navy
- Coast Guard
- Turkish Armed Forces
- Army
- Air Force
- Navy
- Gendarmerie
- Coast Guard See also :Category:Militaries.

Military Alliances

- NATO
- ANZUS
- United Nations
- Warsaw Pact

Reference

Major books for understanding the role of the military, and the civilian leadership of the military. # Why the Allies Won (WWII

Staff

You may be looking for information on:
- musical staff
- employees or volunteers in an organization
- quarterstaff or staff (stick)
- staff of office
- staff (building material)
- Leopold Staff (1878–1957), a Polish poet
- Bowstaff There is also the homophone staph, a bacterial infection. The plural form, staves, also describes part of a barrel. ja:スタッフ

Administrative

The word administration is from the Old English administracioun, deriving from the French administration, which is itself derived from the Latin administratio: a compounding of ad ("to") and ministratio ("to give service"). In modern usage, the word has particular meanings in particular contexts, but all retain this sense of service provision.

Business

In business, administration consists of the performance or management of transactions and other matters, and the making and implementing of major decisions. Administrator can serve as the title of the General Manager or Company Secretary who reports to a corporate board of directors. This use is archaic. Administration can be defined as the universal process of efficiently organizing people and resources so to direct activities toward common goals and objectives. Administration is both an art and a science (if an inexact one), and arguably a craft, as administrators are judged ultimately by their performance. Administration must incorporate both leadership and vision. Management is viewed as a subset of administration, specifically associated with the technical and mundane elements within an organization's operation. It stands distinct from executive or stragegic work. Administration reflects management models. Such models become popular, peak in influence, and are then superseded by other emerging models. Recently influential management models have included Management by objectives (MBO) and Total Quality Management (TQM). Each model continues to have have its proponents. In some organizational analyses, administration can refer to the bureaucratic or operational performance of mundane office tasks, usually internally oriented.

Administrative functions

Administrators, broadly speaking, engage in a common set of functions to meet the organization's goals. The idea of a set of standard administrative functions carries back to Luther H. Gulick, who in 1937 established the acronym POSDCoRB (pronounced "poz dee korb") which stood for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Gulick's set of functions has been refined and condensed several times, resulting in the currently utilized five-step model: 1) planning, 2) organizing, 3) staffing, 4) directing, and 5) controlling
- Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who should do it. It bridges the gap from where the organization is to where it wants to be. The planning function involves establishing goals and arranging them in logical order. Administrators engage in both short-range and long-range planning. : Planning has both symbolic and functional value. The resulting plan provides standing information to members/employees of the organization, and it convinces stake holders to buy into the organization's goals.
- Organizing involves identifying responsibilities to be performed, grouping responsibilities into departments or divisions, and specifying organizational relationships. The purpose is to achieve coordinated effort among all the elements in the organization. Organizing must take into account delegation of authority and responsibility and span of control within supervisory units.
- Staffing means filling job positions with the right people at the right time. It involves determining staffing needs, writing job descriptions, recruiting and screening people to fill the positions.
- Directing is leading prople (see Leadership) in a manner that achieves the goals of the organization. This involves proper allocation of resources and providing an effective support system. Directing requires exceptional interpersonal skills and the ability to motivate people. One of the crucial issues in directing is to find the correct balance between emphasis on staff needs and emphasis on production.
- Controlling in the function that evaluates quality in all areas and detects potential or actual deviations from the organization's plan. This function's purpose is to ensure high-quality performance and satisfactory results while maintaining an orderly and problem-free environment. Controlling includes information management, measurment of performance, and institution of corrective actions. Budgeting - excepted from the above list - can be conceptualized as an administrative area that incorporates most of the administrative functions, begining with the implementation of a budget plan through the application of budget controls.

Government

In some contexts, including normal usage in the United States, the term administration also refers to the executive branch under a specific president (or sometimes governor, mayor, or other local executive), for example: the "Bush administration". (Most other English-speaking countries use the analogous term government, as in the "Blair government".) It can also mean an executive branch agency headed by an administrator: these agencies tend to have a regulatory function as well as an administrative function. On occasion, Americans will use the term to refer to the time a given person was president, e.g. "they've been married since the Carter administration."

Religious

Another sense involves the administration (giving or tendering) of the sacraments, justice, oaths, medicines (see route of administration), etc. See Wiktionary:Administration.

Computing

Legal use in the United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, administration can refer to the British laws for
- the division or disposal of the estate of a deceased person. See below
- a legally appointed interim Chief Executive (the "Administrator") to take compulsory control of the affairs of a company in difficulties. This is described below.

Administration of an estate (on death)

For an explanation of administration (as to both testate and intestate estates) in the United States, see probate. Where a person dies leaving a will appointing an executor, and that executor validly disposes of the property of the deceased within England and Wales, then the estate will go to probate. However, if no will is left, or the will is invalid or incomplete in some way, then administrators must be appointed. They perform a similar role to the executor of a will but, where there are no instructions in a will, the administrators must distribute the estate of the deceased according to the rules laid down by statute and the common law. Certain property falls outside the estate for administration purposes, the most common example probably being houses jointly owned that pass by survivorship on the first death of a couple into the sole name of the survivor. Other examples include discretionary death benefits from pension funds, accounts with certain financial institutions subject to a nomination and the proceeds of life insurance policies which have been written into trust. Trust property will also frequently fall outside of the estate but this will depend on the terms of the trust. Since the Land Transfer Act of 1897, the administrator acts as the personal representative of the deceased in relation to land and other property. Consequently, when the estate under administration consists wholly or mainly of land, the court will grant administration to the heir to the exclusion of the next of kin. In the absence of any heir or next of kin, the Crown has the right to property (other than land) as bona vacantia, and to the land by virtue of the historic land rights of the Crown (and the Duchy of Cornwall and Duchy of Lancashire in their respective areas). If a creditor claims and obtains a Grant of Administration, the court compels him or her to enter into a bond with two sureties that he or she will not prefer his or her own debt to those of other creditors. Letter of administration: Upon the death of a person intestate, or leaving a will without appointing executors, or when the executors appointed by the will cannot or will not act, the Probate Division of the High Court or the local District Probate Registry will appoint an administrator who performs similar duties to an executor. The court does this by granting letters of administration to the person so entitled. Grants of administration may be either general or limited. A general grant occurs where the deceased has died intestate. The order in which the court will make general grants of letters follows the sequence: #The husband, or widow, as the case may be; #the next of kin; #the crown; #a creditor; #a stranger. Where, under the rules for distribution of estates without a will (the Intestacy Rules), a child under 18 would inherit or a life interest would arise, then the Court or District Probate Registry would normally appoint a minimum of two administrators. The more important cases of grants of special letters of administration include the following: Administration cum testamento annexo, where the deceased has left a will but has appointed no executor to it, or the executor appointed has died or refuses to act. In this case the court will make the grant to the person, usually the residuary legatee, with the largest beneficial interest in the estate. Administration de bonis non administratis occurs in two cases: #Where the executor dies intestate after probate without having completely administered the estate #Where an administrator dies. In the first case the principle of administration cum testamento is followed, in the second that of general grants in the selection of the person to whom letters are granted.
- Administration durante minore aetate, when the executor or the person entitled to the general grant is under age.
- Administration durante absentia, when the executor or administrator is out of the jurisdiction for more than a year.
- Administration pendente lite, where there is a dispute as to the person entitled to probate or a general grant of letters the court appoints an administrator till the question has been decided.

Administration of a business

There is provision in United Kingdom law for an insolvent company to be placed into administration. Various authorities may appoint an administrator, principally including:
- the courts (on application from a creditor, directors or partners)
- the holder of a qualifying floating charge over the assets of the business
- the company itself
- the directors of the company concerned
- a creditor The task of the administrator is to manage the business so that the creditors can minimise the scale of their losses. The company is described as being in Administration. Ideally, the Administrator will sell the business as a going concern, securing the best price. It is quite probable that he or she will sell any realisable assets separately: the whole may be worth less than the sum of the parts (see Asset stripping).

Military intelligence

Military intelligence (abbreviated MI, int. Commonwealth, or intel. U.S.), is a military discipline that focuses on the gathering, analysis, protection, and dissemination of information about the enemy, terrain, and weather in an area of operations or area of interest. Intelligence activities are conducted at all levels from tactical to strategic, during peacetime and in war. Most militaries maintain a military intelligence corps with specialized intelligence units for collecting information in specific ways. Militaries also typically have intelligence staff personnel at each echelon down to battalion level. Intelligence Officers and enlisted soldiers assigned to military intelligence may be selected for their analytical abilities or scores on intelligence tests. They usually receive formal training in these disciplines.

Strategic intelligence

Strategic intelligence is concerned with broad issues such as economics, military capabilities of foreign countries, and political assessments. Relevant changes may be scientific, technical, tactical, or diplomatic, but these changes are analyzed in combination with known facts about the area in question, such as geography, demographics, and industrial capacities.

United States

The United States Armed Forces has various styles of referring to its intelligence functions. The numbering system was borrowed from the French General Staff around the period of World War I. In French usage, the second office (deuxième bureau) performed the intelligence function. When on a joint service staff, intelligence officers are referred to as the J-2. For the individual services, several different names apply.

United States Army

The United States Army refers to an intelligence officer assigned to a general officer's staff as a G-2. Intelligence officers of lower units are referred to as S-2s. In Combat Arms battalions, this post is usually held by a captain, with a first or second lieutenant as a deputy and a Master Sergeant (pay grade E-8) or Sergeant First Class (pay grade E-7) as a staff NCO. Larger military units such as a division or separate brigade have military intelligence Warrant Officers assigned as technical experts in the various intelligence disciplines. The U.S. Army trains military intelligence (MI) officers at Fort Huachuca, Arizona. Fort Holabird, Maryland and Camp Ritchey, Maryland and Fort Devens, Massachusetts were posts previously used by the US Army's military intelligence organization for training. The U.S. Army Intelligence Museum is located at Fort Huachuca, Arizona. It features the history of Army intelligence from the Revolutionary war to present. US Army MI personnel have many sub-specialties, including, HUMINT (Human Intelligence collection), SIGINT (Signals Intelligence Collection and analysis), IMINT (Imagery Intelligence collection and analysis), and Counterintelligence (CI). CI Agents are sworn military law enforcement agents, given powers of arrest under Article 136b of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). They range in military rank from Specialist (E4) to Major General. Most are Warrant Officers. HUMINT agents are informally called "Case Officers" and make direct contact with persons of non-US citizenship to collect intelligence information. Some famous Case Officers have included Henry Kissinger who reputedly recruited an entire German village to collect intelligence about Soviet troop movements immediately following World War Two. An agent, "Armando" was the Case Officer for General Noriega of Panama, guiding him through a rise through the Panamanian military ranks from Sergeant to "El Jefe" and dictator. SIGINT personnel collect and analyze information collected by the world wide operations of the National Security Agency (NSA) and the lower-echelon MI units in combat zones. An Army Warrant Officer Astronaut went into space aboard a Space Shuttle to deploy SIGINT assets in orbit. The first soldier killed in the Vietnam conflict was a SIGINT collector. IMINT personnel analyze imagery collected by the many "platforms" used by the MI community. These platforms range from orbiting satellite systems to hand-held camera specially modified for clandestine collection.

United States Navy and Marine Corps

The USN refers to intelligence officers on a flag officer's staff as the N2. At this level, the N2 is usually a senior officer, such as a Captain or Commander. When the senior-most officer is a Captain or lower, the intelligence officer is called an INTELOFF or INTEL and is usually a Lieutenant Commander or Lieutenant with senior enlisted personnel on hand, such as Master Chief Petty Officers or below. The United States Marine Corps's intelligence structure largely follows the same rules as the Army; however, while at sea naval terminology is used. The Navy trains USN and USMC military intelligence officers at the Navy and Marine Corps Intelligence Training Center at Naval Air Station, Oceana.

United States Air Force

The USAF refers to intelligence officers as C2 (at higher levels of command) or A2 (at lower levels). The Air Force trains intelligence officers at Goodfellow Air Force Base in San Angelo, Texas.

United Kingdom

The intelligence group of the British Army is the Intelligence Corps. The Royal Air Force has the RAF Intelligence Branch. The Royal Navy does not have a dedicated Intelligence Branch. The abbreviation MI used in the names of MI5 and MI6, but neither is a military intelligence organization—the use is a historical vestige relating to their origins. In fact they are correctly called Security Service and Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) respectively. The Defence Intelligence Service (DIS) is a Joint Military and Civil Organisation under the UK Ministry of Defence. Military Intelligence training is conducted at Chicksands in Bedfordshire for all services.

References

- N.J.E. Austin and N.B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World From the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople. London: Routledge, 1995.
- Julius Caesar, The Civil War. Translated by Jane F. Mitchell. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967.
- Cassius Dio, Dio's Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1916.
- Francis Dvornik, Origins of Intelligence Services. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1974.
- J.F.C. Fuller, A Military History of the Western World, Vol. 1: From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Lepanto. New York: Da Capo Press, 1987.
- Richard A. Gabriel and Karen S. Metz, From Summer to Rome; The Military Capabilities of Ancient Armies. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.
- John Keegan, Intelligence in War. New York: Knopf, 2003.
- Charles H. Harris & Louis R. Sadler. The Border and the Revolution: Clandestine Activities of the Mexican Revolution 1910-1920. HighLonesome Books, 1988.
- Henry Landau, The Enemy Within: The Inside Story of German Sabotage in America. G.P. Putnam Sons, 1937.
- Sidney F. Mashbir. I Was An American Spy. Vantage, 1953.
- Nathan Miller. Spying for America: The Hidden History of U.S. Intelligence. Dell Publishing, 1989.
- Ian Sayer & Douglas Botting. America's Secret Army, The Untold Story of the Counter Intelligence Corps. Franklin Watts Publishers, 1989.
- Barbara W. Tuchman, The Zimmerman Telegram. Ballantine Books, 1958.

External links

- [http://HavenWorks.com/intelligence Intelligence News] Category:Espionage Espionage Espionage, Military

French Revolutionary Wars

The French Revolutionary Wars occurred between the outbreak of war between the French Revolutionary government and Austria in 1792 and the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. It is usually divided between the First Coalition (1792–1797) and the Second Coalition (1798–1801), although France was at war with Britain continuously from 1793 to 1802. Marked by French revolutionary fervour and military innovations, the series of campaigns characteristically saw France facing a series of opposing coalitions yet expanding its area of effective control. Hostilities ceased with the Treaty of Amiens (1802); for military events thereafter see Napoleonic Wars. Both conflicts together constitute the Great French War.

Context of the wars

François Mignet remarks that "The French revolution was… to terminate the strife of kings among themselves, and to commence that between kings and people… They sought to suppress the revolution, and they extended it; for by attacking it they were to render it victorious." [http://www.outfo.org/literature/pg/etext06/8hfrr10.txt History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1814] He characterizes the situation of Europe on the eve of the wars as follows: : "Austria, England, and France had been, from the peace of Westphalia to the middle of the eighteenth century, the three great powers of Europe. Interest had leagued the two first against the third. Austria had reason to dread the influence of France in the Netherlands; England feared it on the sea. Rivalry of power and commerce often set them at variance, and they sought to weaken or plunder each other. Spain, since a prince of the house of Bourbon had been on the throne, was the ally of France against England. This, however, was a fallen power: confined to a corner of the continent, oppressed by the system of Philip II., deprived by the Family Compact of the only enemy that could keep it in action, by sea only had it retained any of its ancient superiority. But France had other allies on all sides of Austria: Sweden on the north; Poland and the Porte on the east; in the south of Germany, Bavaria; Prussia on the west; and in Italy, the kingdom of Naples. These powers, having reason to dread the encroachments of Austria, were naturally the allies of her enemy. Piedmont, placed between the two systems of alliance, sided, according to circumstances and its interests, with either. Holland was united with England or with France, as the party of the stadtholders or that of the people prevailed in the republic. Switzerland was neutral. : "In the last half of the eighteenth century, two powers had risen in the north, Russia and Prussia. The latter had been changed from a simple electorate into an important kingdom, by Frederick-William, who had given it a treasure and an army; and by his son Frederick the Great, who had made use of these to extend his territory. Russia, long unconnected with the other states, had been more especially introduced into the politics of Europe by Peter I. and Catherine II. The accession of these two powers considerably modified the ancient alliances. In concert with the cabinet of Vienna, Russia and Prussia had executed the first partition of Poland in 1772; and after the death of Frederick the Great, the empress Catharine and the emperor Joseph united in 1785 to effect that of European Turkey. :"The cabinet of Versailles, weakened since the imprudent and unfortunate Seven Years' War, had assisted at the partition of Poland without opposing it, had raised no obstacle to the fall of the Ottoman empire, and even allowed its ally, the republican party in Holland, to sink under the blows of Prussia and England, without assisting it. The latter powers had in 1787 re-established by force the hereditary, stadtholderate of the United Provinces. The only act which did honour to French policy, was the support it had happily given to the emancipation of North America. The revolution of 1789, while extending the moral influence of France, diminished still more its diplomatic influence. :"England, under the government of young Pitt, was alarmed in 1788 at the ambitious projects of Russia, and united with Holland and Prussia to put an end to them. Hostilities were on the point of commencing when the emperor Joseph died, in February, 1790, and was succeeded by Leopold, who in July accepted the convention of Reichenbach. This convention, by the mediation of England, Russia, and Holland, settled the terms of the peace between Austria and Turkey, which was signed definitively, on the 4th of August, 1791, at Sistova; it at the same time provided for the pacification of the Netherlands. Urged by England and Prussia, Catharine II. also made peace with the Porte at Jassy, on the 29th of December, 1791. These negotiations, and the treaties they gave rise to, terminated the political struggles of the eighteenth century, and left the powers free to turn their attention to the French Revolution. :"The princes of Europe, who had hitherto had no enemies but themselves, viewed it in the light of a common foe. The ancient relations of war and of alliance, already overlooked during the Seven Years' War, now ceased entirely: Sweden united with Russia, and Prussia with Austria…"

War of the First Coalition

1791–1792

See also: French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1792 As early as 1791, the other monarchies of Europe looked with concern at the developments in France, and considered whether they should intervene, either in support of Louis XVI or to take advantage of the chaos in France. The key figure was Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, brother to Marie Antoinette, who had initially looked on the Revolution with equanimity, but became more and more disturbed as the Revolution became more radical, although he still hoped to avoid war. On August 27, Leopold and King Frederick William II Prussia, in consultation with emigrant French nobles, issued the Declaration of Pilnitz, which declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe in the well-being of Louis and his family, and threatened vague but severe consequences if anything should befall them. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as a way of taking action that would enable him to avoid actually doing anything about France, at least for the moment, it was seen in France as a serious threat and was denounced by the revolutionary leaders. In addition to the ideological differences between France and the monarchical powers of Europe, there were continuing disputes over the states of Imperial estates in Alsace, and the French were becoming concerned about the agitation of emigré nobles abroad, especially in the Austrian Netherlands and the minor states of Germany. In the end, France declared war on Austria first, with the Assembly voting for war on April 20, 1792, after a long list of the above grievances presented by foreign minister Dumouriez. Dumouriez prepared an immediate invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule. However, the revolution had thoroughly disorganized the army, and the forces raised were insufficient for the invasion. The soldiers fled at the first sign of battle, deserting en masse and in one case, murdering their general. While the revolutionary government frantically raised fresh troops and reorganized its armies, a mostly Prussian allied army under the duke of Brunswick assembled at Koblenz on the Rhine. In July, the invasion commenced, with Brunswick's army easily taking the fortresses of Longwy and Verdun. Brunswick then issued a proclamation, written by the emigré Prince de Condé, declaring their intent to restore the King to his full powers and to treat any person or town who opposed them as rebels to be condemned to death by martial-law. This had the effect of motivating the revolutionary army and government to oppose them by any means necessary, and led almost immediately to the overthrow of the King by a crowd which stormed the Tuileries Palace. The invasion continued, but at Valmy on September 20, they came to a stalemate against Dumouriez and Kellermann in which the highly professional French artillery distinguished itself. Although the battle was a tactical draw, it gave a great boost to French morale. Further, the Prussians, finding that the campaign had been longer and more costly than predicted, decided that the cost and risk of continued fighting was too great, and they decided to retreat from France to preserve their army. Meanwhile, the French had been successful on several other fronts, occupying Savoy and Nice in Italy, while General Custine invaded Germany, several German towns along the Rhine, and reaching as far as Frankfurt. Dumouriez went on the offensive in Belgium once again, winning a great victory over the Austrians at Jemappes on November 6, and occupying the entire country by the beginning of winter.

1793

See also: French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1793 On January 21, the revolutionary government executed Louis XVI after a trial. This united all Europe, including Spain, Naples, and Holland against the revolution. Even Great Britain, initially sympathetic to the assembly, had by now joined the First coalition against France, and armies were raised against France on all its borders. France responded by declaring a new levy of hundreds of thousands of men, beginning a French policy of using mass conscription to deploy more of its manpower than the aristocratic states could, and remaining on the offensive so that these mass armies could commandeer war material from the territory of their enemies. France suffered severe reverses at first, being driven out of Belgium and suffering revolts in the west and south. By the end of the year, the new large armies and a fierce policy of internal repression including mass executions had repelled the invasions and suppressed the revolts. The year ended with French forces in the ascendant, but still close to France's pre-war borders.

1794

See also: French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1794 1794 brought increased success to the revolutionary armies. Although an invasion of Piedmont failed, an invasion of Spain across the Pyrenees took San Sebastian, and the French won a victory at the Battle of Fleurus and occupied all of Belgium and the Rhineland.

1795

See also: French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1795 After seizing the Netherlands in a surprise winter attack, France established the Batavian Republic as a puppet state. Further, Prussia and Spain both decided to make peace, in the Peace of Basle ceding the left bank of the Rhine to France and freeing French armies from the Pyrenees. This ended the main crisis phase of the Revolution and France proper would be free from invasion for many years. Britain attempted to reinforce the rebels in the Vendée, but failed, and attempts to overthrow the government at Paris by force were foiled by the military garrison led by Napoleon Bonaparte, leading to the establishment of the Directory. On the Rhine frontier, General Pichegru, negotiating with the exiled Royalists, betrayed his army and forced the evacuation of Mannheim and the failure of the siege of Mayence by Jourdan.

1796

See also: French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1796 The French prepared a great advance on three fronts, with Jourdan and Moreau on the Rhine, and Bonaparte in Italy. The three armies were to link up in the Tyrol and march on Vienna. Jourdan and Moreau advanced rapidly into Germany, and Moreau had reached Bavaria and the edge of Tyrol by Spetember, but Jourdan was defeated by Archduke Charles, and both armies were forced to retreat back across the Rhine. Napoleon, on the other hand, was completely successful in a daring invasion of Italy. He separated the armies of Sardinia and Austria, defeating them in detail, and forced a peace on Sardinia while capturing Milan and besieging Mantua. He defeated successive Austrian armies sent against him under Wurmser and Alvintzy while continuing the siege. The rebellion in the Vendée was also finally crushed in 1796 by Hoche, but Hoche's attempt to land a large invasion force in Ireland was unsuccessful.

1797

See also: French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1797 Napoleon finally captured Mantua, with the Austrians surrendering 18,000 men. Archduke Charles was unable to stop Napoleon from invading the Tyrol, and the Austrian government sued for peace in April, simultaneous with a new French invasion of Germany under Moreau and Hoche. Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio in October, ceding Belgium to France and recognizing French control of the Rhineland and much of Italy. The ancient republic of Venice was partitioned between Austria and France. This ended the War of the First Coalition, although Great Britain remained in the war.

Napoleon in Egypt

1798

See also: French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1798 With only Britain left to fight and not enough of a navy to fight a direct war, Napoleon conceived of an invasion of Egypt in 1798, which satisfied his personal desire for glory and the Directory's desire to have him far from Paris. The military objective of the expedition is not entirely clear, but may have been to threaten the British dominance in India. Napoleon sailed from Toulon to Alexandria, landing in June. Marching to Cairo, he won a great victory at the Battle of the Pyramids. However, his fleet was destroyed by Nelson at the Battle of the Nile, stranding him in Egypt. Napoleon spent the remainder of the year consolidating his position in Egypt. The French government also took advantage of internal strife in Switzerland to invade, establishing the Helvetian Republic and annexing Geneva. French troops also deposed the Pope, establishing a republic in Rome. An expedition to Ireland, led by General Hoche, set sail in 1796. Accompanied by United Irishmen leader Wolfe Tone, it attempted to land at Bantry Bay, County Cork, but strong gales prevented a successful landing. Another expeditionary force was sent to County Mayo to assist in the rebellion against Britain in the summer of 1798. It had some success against British forces, most notably at Castlebar, but was ultimately routed while trying to reach Dublin. French ships sent to assist them were captured by the Royal Navy off County Donegal.

War of the Second Coalition

See also: Second Coalition Britain and Austria organized a new coalition against France in 1798, including for the first time Russia, although no action occurred until 1799 except against Naples.

1799

See also: French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1799 In Europe, the allies mounted several invasions, including campaigns in Italy and Switzerland and an Anglo-Russian invasion of the Netherlands. Russian general Aleksandr Suvorov inflicted a series of disasters on the French in Italy, driving them back to the Alps. However, the allies were less successful in the Netherlands, where the British retreated after a stalemate (although they did manage to capture the Dutch fleet), and in Switzerland, where after initial victories a Russian army was completely defeated at the Second Battle of Zurich. Napoleon himself invaded Syria from Egypt, but after a failed siege of Acre retreated to Egypt, repelling a British-Turkish invasion. Hearing of a political and military crisis in France, he returned, leaving his army behind, and used his popularity and army support to mount a coup that made him First Consul, the head of the French government.

1800

See also: French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1800 Napoleon sent Moreau to campaign in Germany, and went himself to raise a new army at Dijon and march through Switzerland to attack the Austrian armies in Italy from behind. Narrowly avoiding defeat, he defeated the Austrians at Marengo and reoccupied northern Italy. Moreau meanwhile invaded Bavaria and won a great battle against Austria at Hohenlinden. Moreau continued toward Vienna and the Austrians sued for peace.

1801

See also: French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1801 The Austrians negotiated the Treaty of Lunéville, basically accepting the terms of the previous Treaty of Campo Formio. In Egypt, the Ottomans and British invaded and finally compelled the French to surrender after the fall of Cairo and Alexandria. Britain continued the war at sea. A coalition of non-combatants including Prussia, Russia, Denmark, and Sweden joined to protect neutral shipping from Britain's blockade, resulting in Nelson's surprise attack on the Danish fleet in harbor at the Battle of Copenhagen.

1802

In 1802, the British signed the Treaty of Amiens, ending the war and recognizing French conquests. This began the longest period of peace during the period 1792-1814, and the crowning of Napoleon as emperor (in 1804) is an appropriate point to mark the transition between the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The French First Republic, starting from a position precariously near occupation and collapse, had defeated all its enemies on the continent and produced a revolutionary army that would take the other powers years to emulate. With the conquest of the left bank of the Rhine and domination of the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Italy, they had achieved nearly all the territorial goals that had eluded the Valois and Bourbon monarchs for centuries.

External links

- [http://wikisource.org/wiki/EB1911:French_Revolutionary_Wars French Revolutionary Wars at Wikisource]
- [http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/index.html Napoleon, His Armies and Battles]
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1795

1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 16 - French occupy Utrecht, Netherlands.
- January 20 - French troops enter Amsterdam and later proclaim Batavian Republic.
- January 21 - Dutch fleet freezed in IJsselmeer is captured by French 8e Hussard.
- February 7 - The 11th Amendment to the United States Constitution is passed.
- April 7 - France adopts the metre as the unit of length.
- April 8 - The Marriage of King George IV of the United Kingdom to Caroline of Brunswick.
- Spring - Kamehameha I of the Island of Hawaii defeats the Oahuans at the Battle of Nu'uanu Valley, solidifying his control of the major islands of the archipelago.
- May 15 - First Coalition: Napoleon I of France enters Milan in triumph.
- May and June - The Battle of Richmond Hill in the colony of New South Wales between the Darug people and British Colonial Forces.
- June 8 - Dauphin, would-be-Louis XVII dies.
- June 28 - French government announces that the heir to the French throne has died of illness - many doubt the statement.
- June 27 - British forces land of Quiberon to aid the revolt in Brittany.
- June 27 - French troops recapture St. Lucia.
- July 15 - The Marseillaise officially adopted as the French national anthem.
- August 3 - The signature of the Treaty of Greenville puts an end to the Northwest Indian War.
- October 1 - Austrian Netherlands annexed to the French Republic as the "Belgian departments."
- October 5 - Royalist riots in Paris are crushed by troops under Paul Barras and newly reinstalled artillery officer Napoleon Bonaparte.
- October 27 - The United States and Spain sign the Treaty of Madrid, which established the boundaries between Spanish colonies and the U.S.
- Sweden becomes the first monarchy to recognize the French Republic.
- City of Edmonton, Alberta founded when a Hudson's Bay Company Trading Post is established with the construction of Fort Edmonton.
- Third Partition of Poland
- Failed harvest in Munich
- Large slave rebellion in Curaçao
- Spain cedes its half of Hispaniola to France.
- December 13 A meteorite fell at Wold Newton, a hamlet in Yorkshire in England. This meteorite fall was subsequently used as a literary premise by the science fiction writer Philip José Farmer as the basis for the Wold Newton family stories. See: Wold Newton meteorite.

Ongoing events

- French Revolution (1789-1799)
- French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802) First Coalition

Births

- February 3 - Antonio José de Sucre, Venezuelan revolutionary leader, general and statesman (d. 1830)
- May 19 - Johns Hopkins, American philanthropist (d. 1873)
- May 23 - Charles Barry, English architect (d. 1860)
- September 16 - Saverio Mercadante, Italian composer (d. 1870)
- October 15 - King Frederick William IV of Prussia (d. 1861)
- October 31 - John Keats, English poet (d. 1821)
- November 2 - James Knox Polk, 11th President of the United States (d. 1849)
- November 12 - Thaddeus William Harris, American naturalist (d. 1856)
- December 4 - Thomas Carlyle, Scottish writer and historian (d. 1881)
- December 10 - Matthias W. Baldwin, American locomotive manufacturer (d. 1866)

Deaths

- January 3 - Josiah Wedgwood, English potter (b. 1730)
- January 21 - Samuel Wallis, English navigator
- January 26 - Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach, German composer (b. 1732)
- March 4 - John Collins, American politician (b. 1717)
- March 21 - Giovanni Arduino, Italian geologist (b. 1714)
- April 12 - Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée, Bavarian general (b. 1710)
- May 7 - Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville, French revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1746)
- May 19 - Josiah Bartlett, signer of the American Declaration of Independence (b. 1729)
- June 1 - Pierre-Joseph Desault, French anatomist and surgeon (b. 1744)
- June 8 - King Louis XVII of France (b. 1785)
- July 3 - Louis-Georges de Bréquigny, French historian (b. 1714)
- July 3 - Antonio de Ulloa, Spanish general and governor of Louisiana (b. 1716)
- July 9 - Henry Seymour Conway, British general and statesman (b. 1721)
- August 4 - Timothy Ruggles, American-born Tory politician (b. 1711)
- August 31 - François-André Danican Philidor, French composer and chess player (b. 1726)
- October 8 - Andrew Kippis, English non-conformist clergyman and biographer (b. 1725)
- October 10 - Francesco Antonio Zaccaria, Italian theologian and historian (b. 1714)
- November 15 - Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo, French painter (b. 1719)
- December 23 - Henry Clinton, British general (b. 1730) Category:1795 ko:1795년 ms:1795

Napoleon Bonaparte

] Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a general of the French Revolution, and the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from 11 November 1799 to 18 May 1804, then as Emperor of the French (Empereur des Français) and King of Italy under the name Napoleon I from 18 May 1804 to 6 April 1814, and again briefly from 20 March to 22 June 1815. Napoleon developed a number of innovative military strategies that led to many successful campaigns and surprising victories, as well as some spectacular failures. Over the course of little more than a decade, he fought virtually every European power and acquired control of most of the western and central mainland of Europe by conquest or alliance until his disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812, followed by defeat at the Battle of the Nations near Leipzig in October 1813, which led to his abdication several months later. He staged a comeback known as the Hundred Days (les Cent Jours), but was again defeated decisively at the Battle of Waterloo in Belgium on June 18 1815, followed shortly afterwards by his surrender to the British and his exile to the island of Saint Helena, where he died. Aside from his military achievements, Napoleon is also remembered for the establishment of the Napoleonic Code. He is considered to have been one of the "enlightened despots". Napoleon appointed several members of the Bonaparte family as monarchs. Although their reigns did not survive his downfall, a nephew, Napoleon III, ruled France later in the nineteenth century

Early life and military career

Napoleon III He was born Napoleone Buonaparte (in Corsican, Nabolione or Nabulione) in the city of Ajaccio on Corsica on 15 August 1769, only one year after the island was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa. He later adopted the more French-sounding Napoléon Bonaparte. His family was of minor Corsican nobility. His father, Carlo Buonaparte, an attorney, was named Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI of France in 1778, where he remained for a number of years. The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, Maria Letizia Ramolino. Her firm discipline helped restrain the rambunctious Napoleon as a boy, nicknamed Rabullione (the "meddler" or "disrupter"). Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background and family connections afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time. At age ten, Napoleon was admitted to a French military school at Brienne-le-Château, a small town near Troyes, on 15 May 1779. He had to learn to speak French before entering the school, which he spoke with a marked Italian accent throughout his life, and never learned to spell properly. He earned high marks in mathematics and geography, and passable grades in other subjects. Upon graduation from Brienne in 1784, Bonaparte was admitted to the elite École Royale Militaire in Paris, where he completed the two year course of study in only one year. Although he had initially sought a naval assignment, he studied artillery at the École Militaire. Upon graduation in September, 1785, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant of artillery, and took up his new duties in January 1786, at the age of 16. 1786 Napoleon served on garrison duty in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 (although he took nearly two years of leave in Corsica and Paris during this period). He spent most of the next several years on Corsica, where a complex three-way struggle was played out among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. Bonaparte supported the Jacobin faction, and gained the position of lieutenant-colonel of a regiment of volunteers. After coming into conflict with the increasingly conservative nationalist leader, Pasquale Paoli, Bonaparte and his family were forced to flee to France in June 1793. Through the help of fellow Corsican Saliceti, he was appointed as artillery commander in the French forces besieging Toulon, which had risen in revolt against the Terror and was occupied by British troops. He formulated a successful plan: he placed guns at Point l'Eguillete, threatening the British ships in the harbour with destruction, thereby forcing them to evacuate. A successful assault of the position, during which Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh, led to the recapture of the city and a promotion to brigadier-general. His actions brought him to the attention of the Committee of Public Safety, and he became a close associate of Augustin Robespierre, younger brother of the Revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre. As a result, he was briefly imprisoned following the fall of the elder Robespierre in 1794, but was released within two weeks.

The victorious general

The "whiff of grapeshot"

In 1795, Bonaparte was serving in Paris when royalists and counter-revolutionaries organized an armed protest against the National Convention on 3 October. Bonaparte was given command of the improvised forces defending the Convention in the Tuileries Palace. He seized artillery pieces with the aid of a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat, who later became his brother-in-law. He utilized the artillery the following day to repel the attackers. He later boasted that he had cleared the streets with a "whiff of grapeshot". This triumph earned him sudden fame, wealth, and the patronage of the new Directory, particularly that of its leader, Barras. Within weeks he was romantically attached to Barras's former mistress, Josephine de Beauharnais, whom he married on March 9, 1796.

The Italian campaign of 1796–97

1796 by Baron Antoine-Jean Gros, currently on display in the Louvre, Paris]] Days after his marriage, Bonaparte took command of the French "Army of Italy", leading it on a successful invasion of Italy. At the Lodi, he gained the nickname of "The Little Corporal" (le petit caporal), a term reflecting his camaraderie with his soldiers, all of whom he knew by name. He drove the Austrians out of Lombardy and defeated the army of the Papal States. Because Pope Pius VI had protested the execution of Louis XVI, France retaliated by annexing two small papal territories. Bonaparte ignored the Directory's order to march on Rome and dethrone the Pope. It was not until the next year that General Berthier captured Rome and took Pius VI prisoner on February 20. The pope died of illness while in captivity. In early 1797, Bonaparte led his army into Austria and forced that power to sue for peace. The resulting Treaty of Campo Formio gave France control of most of northern Italy, along with the Low Countries and Rhineland, but a secret clause promised Venice to Austria. Bonaparte then marched on Venice and forced its surrender, ending over 1,000 years of independence. Later in 1797, Bonaparte organized many of the French dominated territories in Italy into the Cisalpine Republic. His remarkable series of military triumphs were a result of his ability to apply his encyclopedic knowledge of conventional military thought to real-world situations, as demonstrated by his creative use of artillery tactics, using it as a mobile force to support his infantry. As he described it: "I have fought sixty battles and I have learned nothing which I did not know at the beginning." Contemporary paintings of his headquarters during the Italian campaign depict his use of the world's first telecommunications system, the Chappe semaphore line, first implemented in 1792. He was also a master of both intelligence and deception and had an uncanny sense of when to strike. He often won battles by concentrating his forces on an unsuspecting enemy by using spies to gather information about opposing forces and by concealing his own troop deployments. While campaigning in Italy, General Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics. He published two newspapers, ostensibly for the troops in his army, but widely circulated within France as well. In May 1797 he founded a third newspaper, published in Paris, entitled Le Journal de Bonaparte et des hommes vertueux. Elections in mid-1797 gave the royalist party increased power, alarming Barras and his allies on the Directory. The royalists, in turn, began attacking Bonaparte for looting Italy and overstepping his authority in dealings with the Austrians. Bonaparte sent General Augereau to Paris to lead a coup d'etat and purge the royalists on 4 September (18 Fructidor). This left Barras and his Republican allies in firm control again, but dependent on Bonaparte's military command to stay there. Bonaparte himself proceeded to the peace negotiations with Austria, then returned to Paris in December as the conquering hero and the dominant force in government, far more popular than any of the Directors.

The Egyptian expedition of 1798–99

Directors In March 1798, Bonaparte proposed an expedition to seize Egypt, then a province of the Ottoman Empire, seeking to protect French trade interests and undermine Britain's access to India. The Directory, although troubled by the scope and cost of the enterprise, readily agreed to the plan in order to remove the popular general from the centre of power. An unusual aspect of the Egyptian expedition was the inclusion of a large group of scientists assigned to the invading French force: among the other discoveries that resulted, the Rosetta Stone was found. This deployment of intellectual resources is considered by some an indication of Bonaparte's devotion to the principles of the Enlightenment, and by others as a masterstroke of propaganda obfuscating the true imperialist motives of the invasion. In a largely unsuccessful effort to gain the support of the Egyptian populace, Bonaparte also issued proclamations casting himself as a liberator of the people from Ottoman oppression, and praising the precepts of Islam. Bonaparte's expedition seized Malta from the Knights of Saint John on June 9 and then landed successfully at Alexandria on July 1, eluding (temporarily) pursuit by the Royal Navy. Although Bonaparte had massive success against the native Mamluk army in the Battle of the Pyramids (his 25,000 man strong invading force defeated a 100,000 man army), his fleet was largely destroyed by Nelson at The Battle of the Nile, so that Bonaparte became land-bound. His goal of strengthening the French position in the Mediterranean Sea was thus frustrated, but his army nonetheless succeeded in consolidating power in Egypt, although it faced repeated nationalist uprisings. In early 1799 he led the army into the Ottoman province of Syria, now modern Israel, and defeated numerically superior Ottoman forces in several battles, but his army was weakened by disease and poor supplies. He was unable to reduce the fortress of Acre, and was forced to retreat to Egypt in May. On 25 July, he defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir. Eventually Bonaparte was forced to withdraw from Egypt in 1799, under constant British and Ottoman attacks.

Ruler of France

The coup of 18 Brumaire

Abukir] While in Egypt, Bonaparte had kept a close eye on European affairs, relying largely on newspapers and dispatches that arrived only irregularly. On 23 August, he abruptly set sail for France, taking advantage of the temporary departure of British ships blockading French coastal ports. Although he was later accused by political opponents of abandoning his troops, his departure actually had been authorized by the Directory, which had suffered a series of military defeats to the forces of the Second Coalition, and feared an invasion. By the time he returned to Paris in October, the military situation had improved thanks to several French victories. The Republic was bankrupt, however, and the corrupt and inefficient Directory was more unpopular with the French public than ever. Bonaparte was approached by one of the Directors, Sieyès, seeking his support for a coup to overthrow the constitution. The plot included Bonaparte's brother Lucien, then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred, Roger Ducos, another Director, and Talleyrand. On 9 November (18 Brumaire), and the following day, troops led by Bonaparte seized control and dispersed the legislative councils, leaving a rump to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, and Ducos as provisional Consuls to administer the government. Although Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, he was outmanoeuvred by Bonaparte, who drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul. This made him the most powerful person in France, a power that was increased by the Constitution of the Year X, which made him First Consul for life.

The First Consul

:Main article: French Consulate French Consulate Bonaparte instituted several lasting reforms including centralized administration of the départements, higher education, a tax system, a central bank, law codes, and road and sewer systems. He negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic Church, seeking to reconcile the mostly Catholic population with his regime. His set of civil laws, the Napoleonic Code or Civil Code, has importance to this day in many countries. The Code was prepared by committees of legal experts under the supervision of Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès, who held the office Second Consul from 1799 to 1804; Bonaparte, however, participated actively in the sessions of the Council of State that revised the drafts. Other codes were commissioned by Bonaparte to codify criminal and commerce law. In 1808, a Code of Criminal Instruction was published, which enacted precise rules of judicial procedure. Although contemporary standards may consider these procedures as favoring the prosecution, when enacted they sought to preserve personal freedoms and to remedy the prosecutorial abuses commonplace in European courts.

An interlude of peace

1808 In 1800, Bonaparte returned to Italy, which the Austrians had reconquered during his absence in Egypt. He and his troops crossed the Alps in spring (although he actually rode a mule, not the white charger on which David famously depicted him). While the campaign began badly, the Austrians were eventually routed in June at Marengo, leading to an armistice. Napoleon's brother Joseph, who was leading the peace negotiations in Lunéville, reported that due to British backing for Austria, Austria would not recognize France's newly gained territory. As negotiations became more and more fractious, Bonaparte gave orders to his general Moreau to strike Austria once more. Moreau led France to victory at Hohenlinden. As a result the Treaty of Lunéville was signed in February 1801, under which the French gains of the Treaty of Campo Formio were reaffirmed and increased; the British signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, which set terms for peace, including the division of several colonial territories. The peace between France and Britain was uneasy and short-lived. The "legitimate" monarchies of Europe were reluctant to recognize a republic, fearing that the ideas of the revolution might be exported to them. In Britain, the brother of Louis XVI was welcomed as a state guest although officially Britain recognized France as a republic. Britain failed to evacuate Malta and Egypt as promised, and protested against France's annexation of Piedmont, and Napoleon's Act of Mediation in Switzerland (although neither of these areas was covered by the Treaty of Amiens). In 1803, Bonaparte faced a major setback when an army he sent to reconquer Santo Domingo and establish a base was destroyed by a combination of yellow fever and fierce resistance led by Toussaint L'Ouverture. Recognizing that the French possessions on the mainland of North America would now be indefensible, and facing imminent war with Britain, he sold them to the United States —the Louisiana Purchase—for less than three cents per acre ($7.40/km²). The dispute over Malta provided the pretext for Britain to declare war on France in 1803 to support French royalists. 1803] 1803

Emperor of the French

In January 1804, Bonaparte's police uncovered an assassination plot against him, ostensibly sponsored by the Bourbons. In retaliation, Bonaparte ordered the arrest of the Duc d'Enghien, in a violation of the sovereignty of Baden. After a hurried secret trial, the Duke was executed on 21 March. Bonaparte then used this incident to justify the re-creation of a hereditary monarchy in France, with himself as Emperor, on the theory that a Bourbon restoration would be impossible once the Bonapartist succession was entrenched in the constitution. Napoleon crowned himself Emperor on 2 December 1804 at Notre-Dame Cathedral. Claims that he seized the crown out of the hands of Pope Pius VII during the ceremony in order to avoid subjecting himself to the authority of the pontiff are apocryphal; in fact, the coronation procedure had been agreed upon in advance. After the Imperial regalia had been blessed by the Pope, Napoleon crowned himself before crowning his wife Joséphine as Empress("illustration right"). Then at Milan's cathedral on 26 May 1805, Napoleon was crowned King of Italy with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. Iron Crown of Lombardy By 1805 Britain instigated a Third Coalition against Napoleon. Napoleon knew the French fleet could not defeat the Royal Navy and therefore arranged to lure the British fleet away from the English Channel so that a joint Spanish and French fleet could regain control of the Channel for twenty-four hours, enough for French armies to cross to England. However, with Austria and Russia preparing an invasion of France and its allies, he had to change his plans and turn his attention to the continent. The newly born Grande Armee secretly marched towards Germany. On 20 October 1805 it surprised the Austrians at Ulm. The next day, however, at the decisive Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805), Britain gained lasting control of the seas. A few weeks later, Napoleon secured a major victory against Austria and Russia at Austerlitz (2 December), forcing Austria yet again to sue for peace. A Fourth Coalition was assembled the following year, and Napoleon defeated Prussia at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt (14 October 1806). He marched on against advancing Russian armies through Poland, and was attacked at the bloody Battle of Eylau on 6 February 1807. After a major victory at Friedland he signed a treaty at Tilsit in East Prussia with Tsar Alexander I of Russia, dividing Europe between the two powers. He placed puppet rulers on the thrones of German states, including his brother Jerome as king of the new state of Westphalia. In the French-controlled part of Poland, he established the Duchy of Warsaw with King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony as ruler. Between 1809 and 1813 Napoleon also served as Regent of the Grand Duchy of Berg for his brother Louis Bonaparte. Ludwig van Beethoven initially dedicated his third symphony, the Eroica (Italian for "heroic"), to Napoleon in the belief that the general would sustain the democratic and republican ideals of the French Revolution, but in 1804, as Napoleon's imperial ambitions became clear, renamed the symphony as the "Sinfonia Eroica, composta per festeggiare il Sovvenire di un grand'Uomo", or in English, "composed to celebrate the memory of a great man".

The Peninsular War and the War of the Fifth Coalition

Main articles: Peninsular War, Fifth Coalition In addition to military endeavors against Britain, Napoleon also waged economic war, attempting to enforce a Europe-wide commercial boycott of Britain called the "Continental System". Although this action hurt the British economy, it also damaged the French economy and was not a decisive factor. Continental System Portugal did not comply with this Continental System and in 1807 Napoleon sought Spain's support for an invasion of Portugal. When Spain refused, Napoleon invaded Spain as well. After mixed results were produced by his generals, Napoleon himself took command and defeated the Spanish army, retook Madrid and then defeated a British army sent to support the Spanish, driving it to the coast and forcing withdrawal from Iberia (in which its commander, Sir John Moore, was killed). Napoleon installed one of his marshals and brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, as the King of Naples, and his brother Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain. The Spanish, inspired by nationalism and the Catholic Church, and angry over atrocities committed by French troops, rose in revolt. At the same time, Austria unexpectedly broke its alliance with France and Napoleon was forced to assume command of forces on the Danube and German fronts. A bloody draw ensued at Aspern-Essling (May 21-22, 1809) near Vienna, which was the closest Napoleon ever came to a defeat in a battle with more or less equal numbers on each side. After a two month interval, the principal French and Austrian armies engaged again near Vienna resulting in a French victory at Battle of Wagram (6 July). Following this a new peace was signed between Austria and France and in the following year the Austrian Archduchess Marie-Louise married Napoleon, following his divorce of Josephine.

Invasion of Russia

Main article: Napoleon's invasion of Russia Although the Congress of Erfurt had sought to preserve the Russo-French alliance, by 1811 tensions were again increasing between the two nations. Although Alexander and Napoleon had a friendly personal relationship since their first meeting in 1807, Alexander had been under strong pressure from the Russian aristocracy to break off the alliance with France. The first sign that the alliance was deteriorating was the easing of the application of the Continental System in Russia, angering Napoleon. By 1812, advisors to Alexander suggested the possibility of an invasion of the French Empire (and the recapture of Poland). Large numbers of troops were deployed to the Polish borders (reaching over 300,000 out of the total Russian army strength of 410,000). After receiving the initial reports of Russian war preparations, Napoleon began expanding his Grande Armée to a massive force of over 450,000-600,000 men (despite already having over 300,000 men deployed in Iberia). Napoleon ignored repeated advice against an invasion of the vast Russian heartland, and prepared his forces for an offensive campaign. On June 23, 1812, Napoleon's invasion of Russia commenced. Napoleon's invasion of Russia Napoleon, in an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists and patriots, termed the war the "Second Polish War" (the first Polish war being the liberation of Poland from Russia, Prussia and Austria). Polish patriots wanted the Russian part of partitioned Poland to be incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and a new Kingdom of Poland created, although this was rejected by Napoleon, who feared it would bring Prussia and Austria into the war against France. Napoleon also rejected requests to free the Russian serfs, fearing this might provoke a conservative reaction in his rear. The Russians under Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Tolly ingeniously avoided a decisive engagement which Napoleon longed for, preferring to retreat ever deeper into the heart of Russia. A brief attempt at resistance was offered at Smolensk (August 16-17), but the Russians were defeated in a series of battles in the area and Napoleon resumed the advance. The Russians then repeatedly avoided battle with the Grande Armée, although in a few cases only because Napoleon uncharacteristically hesitated to attack when the opportunity presented itself. Criticized over his tentative strategy of continual retreat, Barclay was replaced by Kutuzov, although he continued Barclay's strategy. Kutuzov eventually offered battle outside Moscow on 7 September. Losses were nearly even for both armies, with slightly more casualties on the Russian side, after what may have been the bloodiest day of battle in history - the Battle of Borodino (see article for comparisons to the first day of the Battle of the Somme). Although Napoleon was far from defeated, the Russian army had accepted, and withstood, the major battle the French hoped would be decisive. After the battle, the Russian army withdrew, and retreated past Moscow. The Russians retreated and Napoleon was able to enter Moscow, assuming that the fall of Moscow would end the war and that Alexander I would negotiate peace. However, on orders of the city's military governor and commander-in-chief, Fyodor Rostopchin, rather than capitulating, Moscow was ordered burned. Within the month, fearing loss of control back in France, Napoleon left Moscow. The French suffered greatly in the course of a ruinous retreat; the Army had begun as over 650,000 frontline troops, but in the end fewer than 40,000 crossed the Berezina River (November 1812) to escape. In total French losses in the campaign were 570,000 against about 400,000 Russian casualties and several hundred thousand civilian deaths.

The War of the Sixth Coalition

Berezina River, before his exile to Saint Helena]] There was a lull in fighting over the winter of 1812–13 whilst both the Russians and the French recovered from their massive losses. A small Russian army harassed the French in Poland and eventually 30,000 French troops there withdrew to the German states to rejoin the expanding force there - numbering 130,000 with the reinforcements from Poland. This force continued to expand, with Napoleon aiming for a force of 400,000 French troops supported by a quarter of a million German troops. Heartened by Napoleon's losses in Russia, Prussia soon rejoined the Coalition that now included Russia, the United Kingdom, Spain, and Portugal. Napoleon assumed command in Germany and soon inflicted a series of defeats on the Allies culminating in the Battle of Dresden on August 26-27, 1813 causing almost 100,000 casualties to the Coalition forces (the French sustaining only around 30,000). Despite these initial successes, however, the numbers continued to mount against Napoleon as Sweden and Austria joined the Coalition. Eventually the French army was pinned down by a force twice its size at the Battle of Nations (October 16-19) at Leipzig. Some of the German states switched sides in the midst of the battle, further undermining the French position. This was by far the largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars and cost both sides a combined total of over 120,000 casualties. After this Napoleon withdrew in an orderly fashion back into France, but his army was now reduced to less than 100,000 against more than half a million Allied troops. The French were now surrounded (with British armies pressing from the south in addition to the Coalition forces moving in from the German states) and vastly outnumbered. The French armies could only delay an inevitable defeat.

Exile in Elba, return and Waterloo

Leipzig Paris was occupied on March 31 1814. At the urging of his marshals, Napoleon abdicated on 6 April in favour of his son. The Allies, however, demanded unconditional surrender and Napoleon abdicated again, unconditionally, on 11 April. In the Treaty of Fontainebleau the victors exiled him to Elba, a small island in the Mediterranean 20 km off the coast of Italy. In France, the royalists had taken over and restored King Louis XVIII to power. Separated from his wife and son (who had come under Austrian control), cut off from the allowance guaranteed to him by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and aware of rumours that he was about to be banished to a remote island in the Atlantic, Napoleon escaped from Elba on 26 February 1815 and returned to the mainland on 1 March 1815. King Louis XVIII sent the Fifth Regiment, led by Marshal Michel Ney who had formerly served under Napoleon in Russia, to meet him at Grenoble. Napoleon approached the regiment alone, dismounted his horse and, when he was within earshot of Ney's forces, shouted "Soldiers of the Fifth, you recognize me. If any man would shoot his emperor, he may do so now". Following a brief silence, the soldiers shouted "Vive L'Empereur!" and marched with Napoleon to Paris. He arrived on 20 March, quickly raising a regular army of 140,000 and a volunteer force of around 200,000 and governed for a Hundred Days. Napoléon's final defeat came at the hands of the Duke of Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher at the Battle of Waterloo in present-day Belgium on 18 June 1815. Off the port of Rochefort, Napoléon made his formal surrender while on board HMS Bellerophon on 15 July 1815.

Exile in Saint Helena and death

Napoleon was imprisoned and then exiled by the British to the island of Saint Helena (2,800 km off the Bight of Guinea) from 15 October 1815. Whilst there, with a small cadre of followers, he dictated his memoirs and criticized his captors. Sick for much his time on Saint Helena, Napoleon died, on 5 May 1821. His last words were: "France, the Army, head of the Army, Joséphine". Napoléon had asked in his will to be buried on the banks of the Seine, but was buried on Saint Helena. In 1840, his remains were taken to France in the frigate Belle-Poule and entombed in Les Invalides, Paris. Hundreds of millions have visited his tomb since that date.

Cause of death

Les Invalides The cause of Napoleon's death has been greatly disputed. Francesco Antommarchi, Napoleon's personal physician, listed stomach cancer as the reason for Napoleon's death in his death certificate. The diaries of Louis Marchand, Napoleon's valet, have led some (most notably Sten Forshufvud and Ben Weider) to conclude that Napoleon was killed by arsenic poisoning, although whether he was murdered or ingested arsenic in some accidental way (it was used in wallpaper, as a pigment, and in some medicines) is still under dispute. In 2001, Pascal Kintz, of the Strasbourg Forensic Institute in France, added credence to this claim with a study of arsenic levels found in a lock of Napoleon's hair preserved after his death that were seven to thirty-eight times higher than normal (although this is disputable, because another use of arsenic at the time of Napoleon's death was to preserve samples of hair).

Marriages and children

Napoleon was married twice: 2001
- March 9, 1796 to Joséphine de Beauharnais. He formally adopted her son Eugène and cousin Stéphanie after assuming the throne to arrange "dynastic" marriages for them. He had her daughter Hortense marry his brother, Louis. Joséphine agreed to divorce so he could remarry in the hopes of producing an heir; it was the first under the Napoleonic Code.
- March 11, 1810 by proxy to Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria to legitimize the impending birth of their child, then in a ceremony on April 1. They remained married until his death, although she did not join him in his exile.
- Napoléon Francis Joseph Charles (March 20, 1811 - July 22, 1832), King of Rome. Known as Napoléon II of France although he never ruled. Was later known as the Duke of Reichstadt. Did not have issue. Acknowledged two illegitimate children, both of whom had issue:
- Charles, Count Léon, (1806 - 1881), by Louise Catherine Eléonore Denuelle de la Plaigne (1787 - 1868).
- Alexandre Joseph Colonna, Count Walewski, (May 4 1810 - October 27 1868), by Marie, Countess Walewski (1789 - 1817). May have had further illegitimate issue:
- Émilie Louise Marie Françoise Joséphine Pellapra, by Françoise-Marie LeRoy.
- Karl Eugin von Mühlfeld, by Victoria Kraus.
- Hélène Napoleone Bonaparte, by Countess Montholon.
- Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire (August 19, 1805 - November 24, 1895) whose mother remains unknown.

Legacy

Napoleon is credited with introducing the concept of the modern professional conscript army to Europe, an innovation which other states eventually followed. In France, Napoleon is seen by some as having ended lawlessness and disorder in France, and that the Napoleonic Wars also served to export the Revolution to the rest of Europe; the movements of national unification and the rise of the nation state, notably in Italy and Germany, may have been precipitated by the Napoleonic rule of those areas. The Napoleonic Code was adopted throughout much of Europe and remained in force after Napoleon's defeat. Professor Dieter Langewiesche of the University of Tübingen describes the code as a "revolutionary project" which spurred the development of bourgeois society in Germany by expanding the right to own property and breaking the back of feudalism. Langewiesche also credits Napoleon with reorganizing what had been the Holy Roman Empire made up of more than 1,000 entities into a more streamlined network of 40 states providing the basis for the German Confederation and the future unification of Germany under the German Empire in 1871. In mathematics Napoleon is traditionally given credit for discovering and proving Napoleon's theorem, although there is no specific evidence that he did so. The theorem states that if equilateral triangles are constructed on the sides of any triangle (all outward or all inward), the centres of those equilateral triangles themselves form an equilateral triangle. See the discussion in [http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath270/kmath270.htm] about the significance of the theorem. Critics of Napoleon argue that his true legacy was a loss of status for France and many needless deaths: After all, the military record is unquestioned—17 years of wars, perhaps six million Europeans dead, France bankrupt, her overseas colonies lost. And it was all such a great waste, for when the self-proclaimed tête d'armée was done, France's "losses were permanent" and she "began to slip from her position as the leading power in Europe to second-class status—that was Bonaparte's true legacy. [http://www.claremont.org/writings/crb/summer2003/hanson.html].

Misconceptions about Napoleon's height

Contrary to popular belief (perpetuated by the above-mentioned caricatures), Napoleon was not especially short. After his death in 1821, the French emperor's height was recorded as 5 feet 2 inches in French feet. This corresponds to 5 feet 6.5 inches in Imperial (British) feet, or 1.686 meters, making him slightly taller than an average Frenchman of the 19th century [http://www.napoleon.org/en/essential_napoleon/faq/index.asp#ancre54]. The metric system was introduced during his lifetime, so it was natural that he would be measured in feet and inches for much of his life. A French inch was 2.71 centimetres [http://www.historydata.com/miscellaneous.html#linear%20measure], an Imperial inch is 2.54 centimetres. In addition to this miscalculation, his nickname le petit caporal adds to the confusion, as non-francophones mistakenly take petit literally as meaning "small"; in fact, it is an affectionate term reflecting on his camaraderie with ordinary soldiers. He also surrounded himself with soldiers, his elite guard, who were always six feet tall or taller.

Sources

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- (Now a dead link; comparable material is at [http://www.napoleon-series.org].)
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- Full texts of
- [http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_du_13_décembre_1799 The constitution of the Consulate] (in French)
- [http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_du_18_mai_1804 The Imperial Constitution] (in French)
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References

#McLynn (1998), p. 31. # [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4645865.stm BBC News, Napoleon 'tried to learn English' ] # [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3913213.stm BBC News, Napoleon 'killed by his doctors' ] # [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cumbria/4318288.stm BBC News, Napoleon 'not killed', paper says]

External links

- [http://www.badley.info/history/Napoleon-I-France.biog.html Napoleon I Chronology] in World History Database
- [http://www.grand-illusions.com/napoleon/napol1.htm "The Strange Story of Napoleon's Wallpaper"] - discussing the possibility of arsenic poisoning
- [http://www.geocities.com/superstorelink/napoleon.html Napoleon - Portraits and Paintings]
- [http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/index.html Napoleon, His Armies and Tactics]
- [http://www.pbs.org/empires/napoleon/home.html PBS Napoleon] - Detailed biography of Napoleon Category:1769 births Category:1821 deaths Category:Adoptive parents Category:First French Empire Category:Freemasons Category:French emperors Category:French heads of state Category:French Revolution Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece Category:Military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars Category:Napoleonic wars Category:Napoleonic wars French commanders Category:Natives of Corsica Category:Revolutionaries Category:The Bonapartes ko:나폴레옹 보나파르트 ja:ナポレオン・ボナパルト simple:Napoleon th:นโปเลียน โบนาปาร์ต

Prussia

The word Prussia (German: Preußen, Polish: Prusy, Lithuanian: Prūsai, Latin: Borussia) has had various (often contradictory) meanings:
- The land of the Baltic Prussians (in what is now parts of southern Lithuania, the Kaliningrad exclave of Russia and north-eastern Poland);
- The Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights;
- Part of the lands of the Polish Crown called Royal Prussia;
- A fief known as Ducal Prussia ruled by the Hohenzollern dynasty, first under the sovereignty of Poland and then of Brandenburg;
- The entire Hohenzollern realm, whether within or outside Germany proper;
- An independent state, from 1701 until 1867/1871;
- The largest territorial unit within unified Germany from 1867 to 1945. Prussia as a state was de facto abolished by the Nazis in 1934, de jure by the Allied Powers in 1947. Since then, the term's relevance has been limited to historical, geographical or cultural usages. The name Prussia derives from the Prussians, a Baltic people related to the Lithuanians. Ducal Prussia was a dependency of the Kingdom of Poland until 1660, and Royal Prussia remained a part of Poland until 1772. With the growth of German cultural nationalism in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, most German-speaking Prussians came to consider themselves to be part of the German nation, often underlining what were seen as the Prussian virtues: perfect organization, sacrifice, the rule of law. From the late 18th century the expanded Prussia dominated North Germany politically, economically and in terms of population size, and was the core of the unified North German Confederation formed in 1867, renamed German Empire in 1871.

Geography

1871 Prussia began its existence as a small territory in what is now northern Poland and the Kaliningrad exclave of Russia. The region was sparsely populated by Prussians. The area later became subject to German colonization. By the time of its abolition it stretched across the North German Plain from the French, Belgian and Dutch borders on the west to the Lithuanian border and to territories which are now in eastern Poland. At its greatest extent before 1918 it included much of western Poland as well. For a period between 1795 and 1807 Prussia also controlled most of central Poland, including Warsaw. Before its abolition Prussia included, as well as what might be called "Prussia proper" (the regions of West Prussia and East Prussia, which now lie in Poland and Russia), the regions of Pomerania, Silesia, Brandenburg, Lusatia, Province of Saxony (now state of Saxony-Anhalt in Germany) Hanover, Schleswig-Holstein, Westphalia, parts of Hesse, the Rhineland, and some small detached areas in the south such as Hohenzollern, the home of the Prussian ruling family. However there were some regions even in northern Germany that never became a part of Prussia, such as Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, and the Hanse city-states. Being predominantly a northern and eastern German state, Prussia had a large Protestant majority, although there were substantial Roman Catholic populations in the Rhineland, while a number of districts in Posen, Silesia, West Prussia, and the Warmia and Masuria regions of East Prussia had populations of predominantly Catholic Poles. This in part explains why the Catholic south German states, especially Austria and Bavaria, resisted Prussian hegemony for so long. Despite its overwhelmingly German character, Prussia's annexations of Polish territory in the late 18th century brought with them a large and troublesome Polish minority. In 1919 this annexed territory was returned to the newly reconstructed Polish state.

Early History

In 1226 Conrad of Mazovia invited a German order of crusading knights, the Order of the Teutonic Knights from Transylvania to conquer the Prussian tribes on his borders. However, after struggling against more than a century of resistance from the Prussians they created a semi-independent state, which came to control most of what are now Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as well as parts of northern Poland. Eventually defeated, the Knights had to acknowledge the sovereignty of the King of Poland and Lithuania from 1466. In 1525 the Master of the Order became a Protestant, and converted part of the Order's territories into the Duchy of Prussia, the first Protestant State. For more on Prussia's early history see Origins of Prussia, Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights, Prussian Confederation, Duchy of Prussia. The territory of the Duchy was at this time confined to the area east of the mouth of the Vistula, near the present border between Poland and the Russian enclave of Kaliningrad. In 1618 the Duchy was inherited by the Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg, who was at the same time ruler of Prussia and Brandenburg, a German state centered on Berlin and ruled since the 15th century by the Hohenzollern dynasty. For Hohenzollern, the newly acquired state was very important, since it spread outside the reach of the Holy Roman Empire. This state, known as Brandenburg-Prussia, although divided into two parts separated by Polish territory, was steadily drawn out of the orbit of the declining Polish state. Under Frederick William, known as "the Great Elector," Prussia steadily acquired territories, including Magdeburg and enclaves west of the Rhine. For more on this period, see Brandenburg-Prussia and Royal Prussia.

Kingdom of Prussia

Royal Prussia In 1701 Brandenburg-Prussia became the Kingdom of Prussia under Frederick I, with the permission of the Holy Roman Emperor and Polish King. Under Frederick II (Frederick the Great), Prussia seized the province of Silesia from Austria, and defended it through the Seven Years War which ended in 1763 with Prussia as the dominant state of eastern Germany. Prussia also acquired various territories in other parts of Germany through marriage or inheritance, including Pomerania on the Baltic coast. During this period the great Prussian military machine and efficient state bureaucracy were founded, institutions which were to form the foundations of the German state until 1945, and (in some respects) of the GDR after that. Prussia greatly expanded its territories to the east during the Partitions of Poland between 1772 and 1795. (see New East Prussia and South Prussia), which brought territory as far east as Warsaw under Prussian rule. Frederick William II led Prussia into war with revolutionary France in 1792, but was defeated at Valmy and was forced to cede his western territories to France. Frederick William III resumed the war, but suffered disaster at Jena and withdrew from the war after ceding yet more territory at the Treaty of Tilsit. Treaty of Tilsit In 1813 Prussia renounced this treaty and rejoined the war against Napoléonic France. Her reward in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna was the recovery of her lost territories, as well as the whole of the Rhineland and Westphalia and some other territories. These western lands were to be of vital importance because they included the Ruhr valley, centre of Germany's fledgling industrialisation, and particularly of the arms industry. These territorial gains also meant the population of Prussia doubled. Prussia emerged from the Napoléonic Wars as the dominant power in Germany, overshadowing her long-time rival Austria, which had given up the German Imperial Crown in 1806. In exchange, Prussia withdrew from areas of central Poland to allow the creation of Congress Poland under Russian sovereignty. The first half of the 19th century saw a prolonged struggle in Germany between the forces of liberalism, which wanted a united federal Germany under a democratic constitution, and the forces of conservatism, which wanted to keep Germany as a patchwork of weak independent states, with Prussia and Austria competing for influence. In 1848 the liberals got their chance when revolutions broke out across Europe. An alarmed Frederick William IV agreed to convene a National Assembly and grant a constitution. But when the Frankfurt Parliament offered Frederick William the crown of a united Germany, he refused, on the grounds that revolutionary assemblies could not grant royal titles. Prussia obtained a semi-democratic constitution, but the grip of the landowning classes (the junkers) remained unbroken, especially in the eastern parts. For more on this period see Kingdom of Prussia.

Imperial Prussia

Kingdom of Prussia In 1862 Prussian King William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as Prime Minister of Prussia. Bismarck was determined to defeat both the liberals and the conservatives, by creating a strong united Germany but under the domination of the Prussian ruling class and bureaucracy, not the western German liberals. He achieved this by provoking three successive wars, with Denmark in 1864 (second war of Schleswig), which gave Prussia Schleswig-Holstein, with Austria in 1866 (Austro-Prussian War), which allowed Prussia to annex Hanover and most other north German territories who had sided with Austria, and with France in 1870 (Franco-Prussian War), which allowed him to force Mecklenburg, Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg and Saxony to accept incorporation into a united German Empire (which excluded Austria, however), of which William I assumed the title of Emperor (Kaiser). This was the high point of Prussia's fortunes, and had the state continued to have wise leaders, Prussia's economic power and political status might have peacefully made her the centre of European civilization. However, Wilhelm II, who became Emperor in 1888 after the 99-days-rule of Frederick III, was a man of limited experience, narrow and reactionary views and poor judgement. After dismissing Bismarck in 1890 he embarked on a program of militarisation and adventurism in foreign policy that eventually led Germany into the disaster of World War I. As the price of withdrawing from the war, Russia was forced to concede control of large regions of the western Russian Empire to Germany, some of which bordered Prussia, in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918). However German control of these territories only lasted for a few months. 1918

The end of Prussia

The Prussian junkers and generals dominated the conduct of World War I, so when it ended in defeat in 1918 they had to accept responsibility. The Prussian monarchy was overthrown along with all other German monarchies, and Germany became a republic. The Great Poland Uprising, and the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, recreated the Polish state and forced Germany to return territories annexed by Prussia during the Partitions of Poland, as well as parts of Upper Silesia inhabited by Poles. East Prussia found itself again cut off from the rest of Germany by the Polish Corridor. The idea of breaking up Prussia into smaller states was considered by the German Government, but eventually traditionalist sentiment prevailed and Prussia became the "Prussian Free State" (Freistaat Preußen), by far the largest state of the Weimar Republic, comprising 60% of its territory. Since it included the industrial Ruhr and "Red Berlin", it became a stronghold of the left, being governed by a coalition of the Social Democrats and the Catholic Centre for most of the 1920s. Most historians regard the Prussian government during this time as far more capable and successful than that of Germany as a whole. Prussia's democratic constitution was suspended in 1932 as a result of a coup by Germany's conservative Chancellor Franz von Papen, marking the effective end of German democracy. In 1933 Hermann Göring became Interior Minister of Prussia, a position he used to suppress all democratic opposition. In 1934 the Nazi regime abolished the autonomy of all the German states. De jure, Prussia continued to exist as a territorial unit until the end of World War II, but in practice the "Gaue" of the Nazi Party organization were the building blocks of the Nazi state. In 1945 the armed forces of the Soviet Union occupied all of eastern and central Germany (including Berlin). Everything east of the Oder-Neisse line, including Silesia, Pomerania, eastern Brandenburg and East Prussia, was included within the new borders of Poland (with the northern third of East Prussia, including Königsberg, now Kaliningrad, going to the Soviet Union; today it is a Russian exclave between Lithuania and Poland). An estimated ten million Germans fled or were expelled from these territories as a part of the German exodus from Eastern Europe. These expulsions, together with the nationalisation of land by the Communist regime in East Germany, destroyed the junkers as a class and marked the effective end of Prussia as a social and political entity; the East German bureaucracy is seen by many as a "Red" continuation of the Prussian tradition, however. Prussia was formally abolished by a proclamation of the four occupying powers in Germany in 1947. In the Soviet Zone of Occupation, which became East Germany in 1949, the former Prussian territories were reorganised into the states of Brandenburg and Saxony-Anhalt, with the remaining parts of Pomerainia going to Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. These states were abolished in 1952 in favor of districts, but recreated after the fall of communism in 1990. In the western zones of occupation, which became West Germany in 1949, they were divided up among North Rhine-Westphalia, Lower Saxony, Hesse, Rhineland-Palatinate and Schleswig-Holstein (with Baden-Württemberg taking the territory of Hohenzollern). The idea of Prussia is not entirely dead in Germany. Since the reunification of Germany in 1990, suggestions to amalgamate the states of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg and Berlin into one identified as Prussia have arisen though without much enthusiasm, even among German conservatives. The left-wing parties, who govern both nationally and in these three states at present, are firmly opposed to it. However some grassroots groups have sought to encourage a celebration of Prussian history and culture. In 1996 a proposal to merge Berlin and Brandenburg was rejected by Brandenburg voters, even though this was not seen as a decision relating to the revival of Prussia as a state but rather as an attempt to restore the old Brandenburg, since Berlin had never been a city-state before 1945. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a small number of ethnic Germans from Kazakhstan have begun to settle in the Kaliningrad exclave of the Russian Federation, once northern East Prussia, as part of the migration influx into the area, which was previously a restricted area (see "closed city"). As of 2005, about 6,000 (0.6% of population) ethnic Germans, mostly from other parts of Russia, live there. Most Russian Germans preferred to leave for Germany, see History of Germans in Russia and the Soviet Union.

External links

- [http://www.orteliusmaps.com/book/ort56.html 1570 map of Germany and Prussia plus details]
- [http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbillons/atlas/seite70.html Map of Pomerania and Prussia 1598]
- [http://wwwtest.library.ucla.edu/libraries/mgi/maps/blaeu/prvssia.jpg 1660 map of Prussia 1660]
- [http://www.rulers.org/prusprov.html map of Prussian Provinces]
- [http://www.frombork.art.pl/Frombork-foto/merkator.jpg Partial Map of Prussia by Gerard Mercator, Atlas sive cosmographica., Amsterdam 1594]
- [http://www.frombork.art.pl/Frombork-foto/Mprus.jpg Partial Map of Prussia by Kasper Henneberger, Koenigsberg 1629]
- [http://www.frombork.art.pl/Frombork-foto/Hart3_m.jpg Map of Old Prussia by K. Henneberger, 17th c.]
- [http://www.frombork.art.pl/Frombork-foto/Hart4_m.jpg Map of Prussia by K. Henneberger] in: Christoph Hartknoch, Alt- und neues Preussen..., Frankfurt 1684
- [http://www.frombork.art.pl/Frombork-foto/m_reyilly.jpg Map of Prussia and Freie Stadt Danzig from 18th c.]
- [http://www.frombork.art.pl/Frombork-foto/mapaXIX.jpg Map of East Prussia] K. Flemming, F. Handtke, Głogów ca. 1920, after Treaty of Versailles removed Memel area from Germany.
- [http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/Prussian_army.htm Prussian Army] Prussia Category:Kingdom of Prussia Category:Former countries in Europe Category:History of Prussia ko:프로이센 ja:プロイセン simple:Prussia

1806

1806 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 8 - Cape Colony becomes a British colony
- January 10 - Dutch in Cape Town surrender to the British
- January 19 - The United Kingdom occupies the Cape of Good Hope
- February 6 - Royal Navy victory off Santo Domingo - see:Action of 6 February 1806
- March 23 - After traveling through the Louisiana Purchase and reaching the Pacific Ocean, explorers Lewis and Clark and their "Corps of Discovery" begin their journey home.
- March 29 - Construction authorized of the Great National Pike, better known as the Cumberland Road, becoming the first United States federal highway.
- April 8 - Marriage of Stephanie de Beauharnais to Prince Karl Ludwig Friedrich.
- July 4 - Battle of Maida between England and France in Calabria
- July 15 - Pike expedition: Near St. Louis, Missouri, United States Army Lieutenant Zebulon Pike leads an expedition from Fort Belle Fountaine to explore the west.
- August 6 - Francis II, the last Holy Roman Emperor, abdicates, thus ending the Holy Roman Empire.
- October 14 - Battle of Jena-Auerstädt
- November - Napoleon declares a Continental Blockade against the British
- November 15 - Pike expedition: During his second exploratory expedition, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike sees a distant mountain peak while near the Colorado foothills of the Rocky Mountains (it was later named Pikes Peak in his honor).
- Noah Webster publishes his first American English dictionary.

Ongoing events

- Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)-Fourth Coalition

Births

- January 27 - Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga, Spanish composer (d. 1826)
- March 6 - Elizabeth Barrett Browning, English poet (d. 1861)
- March 12 - Jane Pierce, First Lady of the United States (d. 1863)
- March 21 - Benito Juárez, Mexican statesman and folk hero (d. 1872)
- April 9 - Isambard Kingdom Brunel, British engineer (d. 1859)
- May 20 - John Stuart Mill, British philosopher (d. 1873)
- June 28 - Napoleon Coste, French guitarist and composer (d. 1883)
- October 3 - Oliver Cowdery, American religious leader (d. 1850)
- December 11 - Otto Wilhelm Hermann von Abich, German geologist (d. 1886)

Deaths

- January 23 - William Pitt the Younger, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1759)
- February 2 - Rétif de la Bretonne, French writer (b. 1734)
- February 19 - Elizabeth Carter, English writer (b. 1717)
- February 20 - Lachlan McIntosh, Scottish-born American military and political leader (b. 1725)
- April 9 - William V of Orange (b. 1748)
- April 22 - Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, French admiral (stabbed) (b. 1763)
- May 24 - John Campbell, 5th Duke of Argyll, British field marshal (b. 1723)
- June 23 - Mathurin Jacques Brisson, French naturalist (b. 1723)
- July 10 - George Stubbs, English painter (b. 1724)
- July 11 - James Smith, American signer of the Declaration of Independence
- August 10 - Michael Haydn, Austrian composer (b. 1737)
- August 22 - Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French painter (b. 1742)
- August 23 - Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, French physicist (b. 1736)
- September 9 - William Paterson, Signer of the U.S. Constitution, Governor of New Jersey (b. 1745)
- October 9 - Benjamin Banneker, American astronomer and surveyor (b. 1731)
- December 22 - William Vernon, American merchant (b. 1719)
- Mungo Park, Scottish explorer (b. 1771) Category:1806 ko:1806년 ms:1806 simple:1806

Division (military)

]] A division is a large military unit or formation usually consisting of around ten to fifteen thousand soldiers. In most armies a division is composed of several regiments or brigades, and in turn several divisions make up a corps.

History

Pre-modern divisions

The term division came into use as armies began to grow and become mass formations. The division was originally an organizational structure under the corps to assist in command and control of various regiments and brigades. The corps remained the primary maneuver unit of the army, while heraldry and unit identification remained primarily a matter of the regiment.

The modern division

In modern times, the divisional structure has been standardized by most military forces. This does not mean that divisions are equal in size or structure from military to military, but generally divisions have in most cases come to be units of 10,000 to 20,000 troops with substantial enough support organic to the unit to be capable of independent operations. Usually the direct organization of the division consists of one to four brigades or regiments of the combat arm of the division along with a brigade or regiment of combat support (usually artillery) and a number of direct-reporting battalions for various specialized support tasks (often reconnaissance and combat engineers). In most militaries, ideal organization strength is standardized for each type of division, encapsulated in a Table of Organization and Equipment, or TO&E, which specifies exact assignments of units, personnel, and equipment for the division. The modern division has become in many militaries the primary identifiable combat unit, supplanting the regiment. The peak of use of the division as the primary combat unit was during World War II, when hundreds of divisions were deployed. Presently, smaller numbers of divisions represent significant combat power. The recent Invasion of Iraq was completed with only a handful of divisions with significant support forces.

Types

Divisions are often formed to organize units of a particular type together with appropriate support units to allow independent operations. In more recent times, divisions are more often organized as a combined arms unit with subordinate units representing various combat arms. In this case, the division often retains the name of a more specialized division, and may still be tasked with a primary role suited to that specialization.

Infantry

The most common form of divisions formed throughout most of history have been infantry divisions. Often, in small militaries, all divisions were infantry and therefore the term division is synonymous with infantry division in those forces. The basic infantry division is usually formed with a number of infantry regiments (usually three), an artillery regiment, and a few support battalions. Infantry divisions are often formed for specific purposes, and these are sometimes reflected in their name. Basic infantry, without its own transportation (thus relying on leg and horse mobility), is in modern times often considered light infantry, thus the formation of the light infantry division. Its primary value in today's military environment is that it is easy to transport and keep supplied due to its lack of heavy equipment. It is ideal for low-intensity conflict, but lacks firepower for full scale warfare. A common kind of infantry division is mountain infantry. These units are designed to move and fight in alpine environments, and thus their training and equipment must be able to withstand rugged terrain and inclement conditions. Mountain units are often considered elite units, and they may be used in more conventional environments when high-quality troops are needed. Another popular elite infantry formation is the airborne infantry, commonly called parachute infantry. These units are designed to drop their forces by air (both parachute and glider) and maintain combat operations autonomously behind enemy lines. More so than mountain divisions, these units require special training and equipment. A recent off-shoot has been the air-mobile infantry, designed to use helicopter insertion versus traditional airborne operations. All of these units are often employed as elite infantry in traditional combat situations. During World War II, infantry units began becoming more and more mechanized. Many were given enough trucks to carry their entire force, sometimes becoming known as motorised or motorized infantry. Some were equipped with halftracks and other armored carriers, and were known as armored infantry (Germany's units were given the name Panzergrenadier). As these units were developed after the war, the term motorized became common regardless of the type of transportation. For example, the Soviet Union made wide use of armoured personnel carriers in its motor rifle divisions, as did the United States Army in its infantry (motorized) divisions.

Cavalry

For most nations, cavalry was deployed in smaller units and was not therefore organized into divisions, but for larger militaries, a number of cavalry divisions were formed. They were most often similar to the nations' infantry divisions in structure, although they usually had fewer and lighter support elements, with cavalry brigades or regiments replacing the infantry units. For the most part, large cavalry units did not remain after World War II. While horse cavalry had been found to be obsolete, the concept of cavalry as a fast force capable of missions traditionally fulfilled by horse cavalry made a return to military thinking during the Cold War. In general, two types of new cavalry were developed: armoured cavalry, based on an autonomous armored formation, and air cavalry, relying on helicopter mobility. The latter was formed into the U.S. 1st Cavalry Division, although this is essentially air-mobile infantry with significant support units.

Armoured divisions

The development of the tank near the end of World War I prompted some nations to experiment with forming them into division-size units. Many did this the same way as they did cavalry, by merely replacing infantry with tank units and giving motorization to the support units. This proved unwieldy in combat, as the units had many tanks but little infantry. Instead, a more balanced approach of balancing the number of tank, infantry, and artillery units within the division took place. By the end of World War II, in most cases armoured division referred to divisions with significant tank battalions and motorization for its infantry, artillery, and support units. Infantry division referred to divisions with a majority of infantry units. Since the end of the war, most armoured and infantry divisions have had significant numbers of both tank and infantry units within them. The difference has usually been in the mix of battalions assigned. Additionally, in some militaries, armored divisions would be equipped with the most advanced or powerful tanks.

Nomenclature

In most nations, divisions are designated by combining an ordinal number and a type name. Nicknames are often assigned or adopted although these often are not considered an official part of the unit's nomenclature. In some cases, divisions are titled without an ordinal number, often in the case of unique units, or units serving as elite or special troops. For clarification in histories and reports, the nation is identified previous to the number. It is important to note that division names are completely subject to the whim of whatever controlling body names the unit. Fanciful and incongruous names are commonly found. It is common for the ordinal number to not be sequential, leading to high numbers without that many divisions existing. Types as well are not always indicative of the actual structure or mission of the unit. Germany raised a parachute armored division (Fallschirmpanzer-Division) during World War II which obviously never conducted, nor was intended to conduct, a parachute drop. The primary purpose of nomenclature is to give each unit a unique identification to assist in command and control of units. This is also helpful in historical studies, but due to the nature of intelligence on the battlefield, division names and assignments are at times obscured. However, the size of the division makes such obfuscation rarely necessary.

National organization

United Kingdom

In the British Army a division is commanded by a major-general and consists of three infantry, mechanised and/or armoured brigades and supporting units. Currently, the British Army has five active divisions:
- 1st (UK) Armoured Division in Germany
- 2nd Division — The Army in the North, headquartered at Edinburgh
- 3rd (UK) Mechanised Division, headquartered at Tidworth
- 4th Division, headquartered at Aldershot
- 5th Division — Wales, West and South West, headquartered at Shrewsbury

United States

In the United States Army, a divisional unit typically consists of 10,000 to 20,000 soldiers commanded by a major general. Two divisions usually compose a corps and each division is composed of about three maneuver brigades, an aviation brigade, an engineer brigade, and division artillery, along with a number of smaller specialized units. The United States Army currently has ten active divisions:
- 1st Infantry Division at Fort Riley, Kansas and in Germany
- 1st Armored Division at Fort Riley, Kansas and in Germany
- 1st Cavalry Division at Fort Hood, Texas
- 2nd Infantry Division in South Korea
- 3rd Infantry Division at Fort Stewart, Georgia
- 4th Infantry Division at Fort Hood, Texas
- 10th Mountain Division (Light) at Fort Drum, New York
- 25th Infantry Division (Light) at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii
- 82nd Airborne Division at Fort Bragg, North Carolina
- 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) at Fort Campbell, Kentucky The United States Marine Corps has a further three active divisions. They consist of three infantry regiments, one artilery regiment, a tank battalion, and a Light Armored Vehicle battalion, in addtion to supporting elemtns
- 1st Marine Division at Camp Pendleton, California.
- 2nd Marine Division at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina.
- 3rd Marine Division at Camp Smedley D. Butler, Okinawa, Japan.

Corps

: This article is about a military unit. For alternate meanings see Corps (disambiguation). A corps (a word that immigrated from the French language, pronounced like English "core", but originating in the Latin "corpus, corporis" meaning body; plural same as singular) is either a large military unit or formation, an administrative grouping of troops within an army with a common function (such as artillery or signals), or a formed military or semi-military body (such as the United States Marine Corps, the Corps of Royal Marines, the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms, or the Corps of Commissionaires).

Military formation

In many armies, it refers to a unit of approximately 60,000 men, composed of usually three divisions, and typically commanded by a lieutenant general. During World War I and World War II, due to the large scale of combat, multiple corps were combined into armies which then formed into army groups. army group The Pre-War Soviet Red Army had Rifle Corps much like in the Western sense - with about three divisions to the Corps. However, after the war started, the recently purged Soviet senior command structure were apparently unable to handle the formations, and the Armies and Corps were integrated into new, smaller "Armies" and those into fronts. Before and during World War II, however, Soviet armored units were organized into corps. The pre-war Mechanized Corps were made of divisions. In the reorganizations, these "corps" were reorganized into tank brigades and support units, which in terms of actual strength were equivalent to armored divisions in most other armies. Due to this, they are sometimes, informally, referred to as "Brigade Buckets". After the war, the Rifle Corps were re-established, while the Tank and Mechanized Corps were re-rated as divisions. Several years later, most of the corps were again demolished to create the new Combined Arms and Tank Armies. A few Corps were nevertheless retained, of both patterns. The Vyborg and Archangel Corps of the Leningrad MD were smaller armies with 3 low-readiness motorized rifle divisions each. The Category A Unified Corps of the Beylorussian MD (Western TVD) and Carpathian MD (also Western TVD) are of the brigade pattern. As of 2003, the United States Army has four field corps. The structure of a field corps is not permanent; many of the units that it commands are allocated to it as needed on an ad hoc basis. On the battlefield, the field corps is the highest level of the forces that is concerned with actually fighting and winning the war. (Higher levels of command are concerned with administration rather than fighting, at least in current doctrine.) The corps provides operational direction for the forces under its command. Corps are designated by consecutive Roman numerals. The present active corps in the US Army are I Corps ("eye core"), III Corps, V Corps, and XVIII Airborne Corps; their numbers derive from four of the 30-odd corps that were formed during World War II. It also refers to a grouping of specialized troops such as the Army Corps of Engineers and the United States Marine Corps. The British Army still has a corps headquarters for operational control of forces. I Corps of the British Army of the Rhine was redesignated the Headquarters Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps in 1994. It is no longer a purely British formation, although the UK is the 'framework nation' and provides most of the staff for the headquarters. A purely national corps headquarters could be quickly reconstituted if necessary. It was last deployed as the headquarters commanding land forces during the Kosovo War in 1999 and also saw service in Bosnia, commanding the initial stages of the IFOR deployment prior to that in 1996. Otherwise, the only time a British corps headquarters has been operationally deployed since 1945 was II Corps during the Suez Crisis.

Administrative corps

In the British Army and the armies of many Commonwealth countries, a corps is also a grouping by common function (e.g. Intelligence Corps, Royal Logistic Corps, Royal Corps of Signals), performing much the same function as a ceremonial infantry or cavalry regiment, with its own cap badge, stable belt, and other insignia and traditions. The Royal Armoured Corps and the Corps of Infantry are looser groupings of independent regiments. The corps system is also used in the U.S. Army to group personnel with a common function, but without a regimental system there is less variation in insignia and tradition.

Joint warfare

Joint warfare is a military doctrine which places priority on the integration of the various service branches of a state's armed forces into one unified command. Joint warfare is in essence a form of combined arms warfare on a larger, national scale, in which complementary forces from a state's army, navy, air, and special forces are meant to work together in joint operations, rather than planning and executing military operations separate from each other. The United States Department of Defense, which endorses joint warfare as an overriding doctrine for its forces, describes it as "team warfare", which "requires the integrated and synchronized application of all appropriate capabilities. The synergy that results maximizes combat capability in unified action." This priority on national unity of effort means practitioners of joint warfare must acknowledge the importance of the interagency process, including the priorities, capabilities, and resources of other non-uniformed agencies (such as intelligence services) in military planning. Military operations conducted by armed forces from two or more allied countries are also sometimes referred to as joint operations.

References

- United States Department of Defense publication [http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/new_pubs/jp1.pdf JP 1, "Joint Warfare of the Armed Forces of the United States"] (pdf document)

External links

- [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0KNN/is_2002_Summer/ai_99817509/print The evolution of joint warfare - Joint Warfighting], Joint Forces Quarterly, Summer 2002

Department of Defense

:Note: DOD redirects here. For other uses, please see DOD (disambiguation) The United States Department of Defense, abbreviated as DoD or DOD and sometimes called the Defense Department is a civilian Cabinet organization of the United States government. The Department of Defense controls the U.S. military and is headquartered at The Pentagon. It is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is currently Donald Rumsfeld.

History

Proposals to coordinate the activities of the military services were initially considered by U.S. Congress in 1944. Specific plans were put forth in 1945 by the Army, the Navy, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In a special message to U.S. Congress on December 19, 1945, President Harry Truman proposed creation of a unified Department of National Defense, which came under the Department of Transportation. A proposal reached Congress in April 1946, but was held up by the Naval Affairs Committee held hearings in July 1946 due to objections to the concentration of power in a single department. Truman eventually sent new legislation to Congress in February 1947, where it was debated and amended for several months. On July 26, 1947, Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947, which set up the National Military Establishment to begin operations on September 18, 1947, the day after the confirmation of James V. Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense. The Establishment had the unfortunate abbreviation 'NME' (the obvious pronunciation being "enemy"), and was renamed the "Department of Defense" on August 10, 1949; in addition, the secretary was given greater authority over the military departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The Department of Defense is based in The Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia outside Washington, DC, across the Potomac River. It was created by combining the War Department (founded in 1789) with the Navy Department (founded in 1798; formerly the Board of Admiralty, founded in 1780), and the newly created Department of the Air Force. The department was formed in order to reduce interservice rivalry which was believed to have reduced military effectiveness during World War II. It includes the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, as well as non-combat agencies such as the National Security Agency and the Defense Intelligence Agency. In wartime, the Department of Defense also has authority over the Coast Guard; in peacetime, that agency is under the control of the Department of Homeland Security. Prior to the creation of DHS, the Coast Guard was under the control of the Department of Transportation. The Coast Guard has not been formally militarized since World War II, although it has participated in various military and law enforcement operations over the years. The DoD's annual budget is roughly $425 billion (~$1,600 per capita), which does not include tens of billions more in supplemental expenditures allotted by Congress throughout the year. The command structure of the Department of Defense is defined by the Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986. Under the act, the chain of command runs from the President of the United States, through the Secretary of Defense, to the regional commanders within one of several commands who command all military forces within their area of operation. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the several Chiefs of Staff are responsible for readiness of the U.S. military and serve as the President's military advisers, but are not in the chain of command. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is by law the highest ranking military officer in the United States. On February 22, 2002, the Department of Defense Office of the Inspector General has reported that DOD has not and will not account for $1.1 trillion of "undocumentable adjustments." In addition, there have been several high-profile Government Accountability Office investigations of the Department of Defense. As part of the September 11, 2001 attacks, terrorists crashed a plane into one of the sections of The Pentagon, causing part of it to collapse, killing 189 people.

Organization

- Office of the Secretary of Defense
- Defense Policy Board Advisory Committee
- Office of Net Assessment
- Office of Inspector General
- Defense Criminal Investigative Service
- Military Departments
- Department of the Army including the U.S. Army
- Department of the Navy including the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps
- Department of the Air Force including the U.S. Air Force
- Joint Chiefs of Staff
- United States Naval Observatory
- Unified Combatant Commands
- Central Command (CENTCOM)
- European Command (EUCOM)
- Joint Forces Command (JFCOM)
- Northern Command (NORTHCOM)
- Pacific Command (PACOM)
- Southern Command (SOUTHCOM)
- Special Operations Command (SOCOM)
- Strategic Command (STRATCOM)
- Transportation Command (TRANSCOM)
- Defense Agencies
- Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
- Defense Commissary Agency
- Defense Contract Audit Agency
- Defense Contract Management Agency
- Defense Finance and Accounting Service
- Defense Information Systems Agency
- Defense Intelligence Agency
- Defense Legal Services Agency
- Defense Logistics Agency
- Defense Security Cooperation Agency
- Defense Security Service
- Defense Threat Reduction Agency
- Missile Defense Agency
- National Security Agency
- National Reconnaissance Office
- National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
- Pentagon Force Protection Agency
- Department of Defense Field Activities
- American Forces Information Service
- Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office
- Department of Defense Education Activity
- Department of Defense Dependents Schools
- DoD Human Resources Activity
- Office of Economic Adjustment
- Tricare Management Activity
- Washington Headquarters Services In 2003, the National Communications System was moved to the United States Department of Homeland Security. United States Department of Homeland Security

Related legislation

- 1947 - National Security Act of 1947
- 1958 - Department of Defense Reorganization Act PL 85-899
- 1963 - Department of Defense Appropriations Act PL 88-149
- 1963 - Military Construction Authorization Act PL 88-174
- 1967 - Supplemental Defense Appropriations Act PL 90-8
- 1984 - Department of Defense Authorization Act PL 98-525
- 1986 - Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 or Department of Defense Reorganization Act PL 99-433
- 1996 - Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act PL 104-132

External links

- [http://www.defenselink.mil/ United States Department of Defense website]
- Defense ko:미국 국방부 ja:アメリカ国防総省

Squadron

A Squadron is a small unit or formation of cavalry, aircraft (including balloons), or naval vessels.
- A cavalry squadron (horse or armoured) typically consists of three to five troops. In the United States Army, a squadron is the Cavalry equivalent of a battalion of infantry or artillery; it is used for Armored Cavalry and Aviation Cavalry units. In the British Army, it is the counterpart of an infantry company or artillery battery.
- An air force, army aviation or naval aviation squadron typically consists of three or four flights, with a total of 12 to 24 aircraft, depending on aircraft type and air force. In the Imperial Japanese Army in the Second World War, three air squadrons were assigned to each air regiment. Some air forces (including the Royal Air Force and United States Air Force) also use the term for a ground unit.
- In the United Kingdom, the designation is also used for company-sized units in the Special Air Service, Royal Engineers, Royal Corps of Signals, Royal Army Medical Corps and Royal Logistic Corps, and formerly of the now defunct Royal Corps of Transport, as well as some units in the Royal Marines.
- A naval squadron is more of an ad hoc formation. The only requirement for a grouping of ships to be a squadron is that at least two must be capital ships (battleships, battlecruisers, cruisers, or aircraft carriers). In the United States Navy, several ships of a similar type, such as submarines and destroyers, are administered as squadrons.
- Squadrons are commonly designated using letters or numbers (e.g. No. 1 Squadron or A Squadron). In the British Army, however, it is also a tradition for squadrons to be named after an important historical battle in which the regiment has taken part. In some special cases, squadrons can also be named after a unique honour which has been bestowed on the unit (e.g. The Queen's Colour Squadron of the Royal Air Force's RAF Regiment).

Battalion

]] In military terminology, a battalion consists of two to six companies typically commanded by a lieutenant colonel. The nomenclature varies by nationality and by branch of arms, e.g. some armies organize their infantry into battalions, but call battalion-sized cavalry, reconnaissance, or tank units a squadron or a regiment instead. There may even be subtle distinctions within a nation's branches of arms, such a distinction between a tank battalion and an armored squadron, depending on how the unit's operational role is perceived to fit into the army's historical organization. A battalion is potentially the smallest military unit capable of independent operations (i.e. not attached to a higher command), but is usually part of a regiment or a brigade or both, depending on the organizational model used by that service. Battalions are ordinarily homogeneous with respect to type (e.g. an infantry battalion or a tank battalion), although there are occasional exceptions.

United States Army

A battalion in the U.S. Army or Marine Corps is the smallest self-sustaining unit that can be deployed. An American battalion has between 300 to 1000 Soldiers or Marines, and consists of several companies. It is commanded by a lieutenant colonel, with majors serving as the executive officer and the Operations Officer (S-3). The Adjutant (S-1), Intelligence (S-2), and Supply (S-4) officers are captains. Three to four battalions form a brigade. In the 1960s to the present day, a typical infantry battalion has five companies: Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC), which includes the battalion staff; A, B, and C Companies, and a Combat Support Company, which includes scouts, anti-tank, and mortar sections or platoons. American Army mechanized infantry battalions and tank battalions, for tactical purposes, will cross-post companies to each other, forming a battalion-sized task force (TF). During the American Civil War, an infantry or cavalry battalion was an ad hoc grouping of companies from the parent regiment (which had ten companies, A through K), except for certain regular infantry regiments, which were formally organized into three battalions of six companies each. After 1882, cavalry battalions were renamed squadrons and cavalry companies were renamed troops.

British Army

The term battalion is used in the infantry, Royal Army Medical Corps and Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers only. It was formerly used in the Royal Engineers (occasionally) and the now defunct Royal Army Ordnance Corps and Royal Pioneer Corps. Other corps usually use the term regiment. An infantry battalion usually has a Headquarters Company, Support Company and three Rifle Companies (usually, but not always, A, B and C). Each company is commanded by a major, the officer commanding (OC), with a captain as second-in-command (2i/c). The HQ company contains signals, quartermaster, catering, intelligence, administration, pay, training, operations and medical elements. The support company usually contains anti-tank, machine gun, mortar, pioneer and reconnaissance platoons. Mechanised units will usually have an attached Light Aid Detachment (LAD) of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME) to perform field repairs on vehicles and equipment. Important figures in a battalion headquarters include:
- Commanding Officer (CO) (invariably a lieutenant colonel)
- Second-in-Command (2i/c) (usually a major)
- Adjutant (captain or major)
- Quartermaster (QM) (captain or major)
- Regimental Medical Officer (RMO) (Royal Army Medical Corps captain or major)
- Regimental Administrative Officer (RAO) (Adjutant General's Corps captain or major)
- Padre (Royal Army Chaplains Department Chaplain 4th or 3rd Class)
- Regimental Intelligence Officer (RIO) (lieutenant or captain)
- Regimental Signals Officer (RSO) (lieutenant or captain)
- Regimental Sergeant Major (RSM) (warrant officer class 1)
- Regimental Quartermaster Sergeant (RQMS) (warrant officer class 2)
- Chief Clerk
- Drum Major (or Bugle Major in light infantry battalions)
- Pipe Major (in Scots and Irish regiments only)

German General Staff

The German General Staff or Großer Generalstab was the most important German "weapon" for nearly two centuries.

History

Prussia was first among nations to create a separate standing unit dedicated entirely to the rational planning of all aspects of war. It was the work of the Prussian General staff which was one of the main factors responsible for the unification of all the independent German states and the creation of a German Empire under Prussian control in 1870. The Prussian General staff was also responsible for the defeat of the French army in that same year, to the surprise of so many military professionals around the world. With unification it became the German General Staff and began preparing for what seemed to be an inevitable war with both France and Russia. From the mid 1700s to the early 1800s, great military minds like Scharnhorst and von Gneisenau helped to form and firm up the beginnings of the German General Staff. It has been the model for almost all European military staffs since. When Germany was defeated in 1918, the articles of peace specifically forbade the creation or recreation of the General Staff. Despite this, the German officer corps carefully set about planning the next war in a camouflaged general staff hidden within the Truppenamt ("troop office"), an innocent-looking human-resources bureau within the small army permitted by the peace accord and the Treaty of Versailles in particular. When Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 all he had to do was to follow the Truppenamt-General Staff plan to build up the German war machine. However, the General Staff advised Hitler that the German army would be fully modernised and ready in 1944-45 only. As a result most artillery pieces were still horse drawn at the outbreak of war in 1939. Also, for all the duration German industry could not furnish small arms in sufficient quantities, forcing the Army to rely heavily on older weapons, prizes of war, and adaptations of former designs produced in conquered countries, thus producing an arsenal filled with a stunning array of incompatible pieces, unlike the smaller number of standard small arms used by the allies.

Chiefs of the Prussian General Staff (1808 - 1871)

- Gerhard von Scharnhorst 1 March 1808 - 17 June 1810
- Karl von Hake 17 June 1810 - March 1812
- Gustav von Rauch March 1812 - March 1813
- Gerhard von Scharnhorst March 1813 - 28 June 1813
- August von Gneisenau 28 June 1813 - 3 June 1814
- Karl von Grolman 3 June 1814 - November 1819
- Johann Rühle von Lilienstern November 1819 - 11 January 1821
- Karl von Müffling 11 January 1821 - 29 January 1829
- Wilhelm von Krauseneck 29 January 1829 - 13 May 1848
- Karl von Reyher 13 May 1848 - 7 October 1857
- Helmuth von Moltke (the elder) 7 October 1857 - 10 August 1888

Chiefs of the German General Staff (1871 - 1919)

- Helmuth Graf von Moltke 7 October 1857 - 10 August 1888
- Alfred Graf von Waldersee 10 August 1888 - 7 February 1891
- Alfred Graf von Schlieffen 7 February 1891 - 1 January 1906
- Helmuth von Moltke (the younger) 1 January 1906 - 14 September 1914
- Erich von Falkenhayn 14 September 1914 - 29 August 1916
- Paul von Hindenburg 29 August 1916 - 3 July 1919
- Wilhelm Groener 3 July 1919 - 7 July 1919
- Hans von Seeckt 7 July 1919 - 15 July 1919

Chiefs of Troop Office (1919 - 1933)

- Hans von Seeckt 11 October 1919 - 26 March 1920
- Wilhelm Heye 26 March 1920 - February 1923
- Otto Hasse February 1923 - October 1925
- Wilhelm Wetzell October 1925 - 27 January 1927
- Werner von Blomberg 27 January 1927 - 30 September 1929
- Baron Kurt von Hammerstein-Equord 30 September 1929 - 31 October 1930
- Wilhelm Adam 31 October 1930 - 30 September 1933

Chiefs of the General Staff (1933 - 1945)

- Ludwig Beck 1 October 1933 - 31 October 1938
- Franz Halder 1 September 1938 - 24 September 1942
- Kurt Zeitzler 24 September 1942 - 10 June 1944
- Adolf Heusinger 10 June 1944 - 21 July 1944
- Heinz Guderian 21 July 1944 - 28 March 1945
- Hans Krebs 1 April 1945 - 30 April 1945

Notes

#With the creation of the Wehrmacht in 1936, it became the Generalstabs des Heeres (Army General Staff).

Readings

- Addington, Larry H. The blitzkrieg era and the German General Staff, 1865-1941. New Brunswick, N.J., Rutgers University Press, 1971.
- Goerlitz, Walter. History of the German General Staff, 1657-1945. New York, Praeger, 1959.

Anthony Quinton

Lord Anthony Quinton (born 1925) is a British political and moral philosopher, metaphysician, and materialist philosopher of mind.

Writings

- The Nature of Things, (London, 1973)
- The Politics of Imperfection: The Religious and Secular Traditions of Conservative Thought in England from Hooker to Oakeshott
- Utilitarian Ethics
- From Wodehouse To Wittgenstein Quinton, Anthony Quinton, Anthony Quinton, Anthony Quinton, Anthony

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